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HAILH^^ADS 


A colljiction  of  43  Arti^^iles  relating  to 
Operation,  '^^ationali'/ation,  Accidents, 
Taxation,  etc.,  in  England,  France, 
Belgium,  f^pain,  the  Hear  Fast,  South 
Anier*ica,  and  the  IstlmTs  of  Panama 
Taken  from  the 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  Chaiitauquan,  Empire  Hevievv, 
Fortni^itly  Review,  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Statistical  Society,  Merchants  Magazine, 
Ou.tlook,SoGie ty of  Engineers  Transactions, 
United  Service  Institution  Journal,  and 
7/0 r Id’s  V/ork, 


C L F V E L A U r 


1 9 1 S 


0'3 

F7^/ 


C 6 T TC  T S 


Accidents  on  Railways  in  Fngland 

Bagdad  Railway  ^ 

British  Railv;ay  Statistics 

Bnrgess  (R.)  Rlilitary  Roads  of  the  Ancient 
Roibans,  con.’pared  with  Modern  British 
Rai Iways 

Conley  (Edward  M.)  Nev/  Isthmian  Railroad 

Cuban  Railroad 

Oillen  - Panama  Railroad 

Cullen  - Xsthnius  of  Bari  an  and  the  Ship.  Cs.nal 

Daniel  (A.E.)  Underground  Railway  in  London 

Development  of  West  Africa  by  Railways 

Die tier  (Hans)  Regulation  and  Uaticnalisation 
of  the  Swiss  Railways  I 

Die  tier  (Hans)  Regulation  and  UationaiiZration 
of  the  Swiss  Railways  II 

Hrench  Railroads 


History  of  the  English  Railways 


1 


tr 


Fowell  (Price)  Compare Statistics  of 
tralian  Kai Iways 

Iffiperial  Mexican  Railway 

India  Railroads  and  the  Cotton  Trade 

Monnt  Cenis  Sur.'ir.it  Railway 

O'Connor  (T.A.)  .Bagdad  Railv^ay  

Pepper^  (Charles  M.)  Pan-American  Railway 

» 

Progress  of  Fnglish  Railways 

Proposed  Railroad  ^Across  the  Isthmus  of  Panairia 

Prouty  (Charles  A,)  Railvv^ay  Discriminations 
and  Industrial  Comhinations 

Railroad  and  Canal  Statistics:  Heading  Railrorid 
Erie  Canal  and  Western  Railroad:  Comparative 
Cost  of  Railroads 

Railroad  and  their  Future 

Railroads  and  Canals  of  Few  York 

Railroads  in  India 

Railroads  in  Texas 

Railroad,  Virginia  and  Tennessee 

Railroads,  Indiari 

Railroads  in  the  United  States 

Railroad  Statistics:  France,  Engl'and,  Paris  and 
London 

Railroad  Taxation  in  Fngland 

o 

w t 


■Railroad  Travel,  Increase  of 

■Rp.ilwp.ys  in  Spain.-  Pyrenees  .to  be  Tunnelled 

/* 

Railways  of  France 
■Railways  of  Italy 

Redaction  of  Fares  on  English  Railways  [follows 
Acciaents  on  Railways] 

Rost  (E.C.)  Highest  of  i^ll  Railroads 

Talbot  (Frederick  A.)  Railways’  Fight  for  Tr^is- 
tence 

Troy  and  Crreenbush  Railroad  [follov/s  Radnction 
of  Fares] 

Victoria  Railways  "Bridge  at  Montreal 


PS 


' .1: !; 


•7 

o • 


I 


Railroad  and  Steamboat  Statistics. 


97 


RAILROAD  AND  STEAMBOAT  STATISTICS. 


ACCIDENTS  ON  RAILWAYS  IN  ENGLAND. 

The  usujil  annual  report  from  the  Railway  Department  of  the  Board  of  Trade  has  just 
been  presented  to  Parliament  for  the  years  1844  and  1845  ; from  which  it  appears  that 
in  1844  ten  persons  were  killed,  four  of  whom  were  passengers,  and  one  hundred  and 
one,  eighty-two  of  whom  were  passengers,  injured  in  a greater  or  less  degree,  the  causes 
of  the  accident  being  beyond  the  control  of  passengers ; that  nine  passengers  were  killed, 
and  ten  injured,  owing  to  their  own  neglect  or  ill  conduct;  that  thirty-six  servants  of  the 
companies  were  killed,  and  twenty-four  injured,  under  circumstances  not  attended  with 
danger  to  other  portions  of  the  public ; and  that  forty-five  persons  other  than  servants  of 
the  companies  were  killed,  and  nine  injured,  under  circumstances  not  involving  danger  to 
passengers.  The  report  says  that  the  actual  number  of  accidents  in  the  years  1844  and 
1845  are  greater  than  they  were  in  previous  years  ; but  the  real  danger  arising  from  rail- 
way travelling  can  only  be  appreciated  when  the  number  of  accidents  shall  be  considered 
in  connection  with  the  additional  amount  of  miles  of  new  railway  which  have  been  open- 
ed, and  the  enormous  augmentation  of  railway  travellers.  For  this  purpose,  the  follow- 
ing table  has  been  made.  It  includes  the  years  1841,  ’42,  ’43,  ’44,  and  the  first  half  of 
’45.  The  last  half  of  ’45  is  not  included,  in  consequence  of  the  statistical  returns  for 
that  period  not  having  yet  been  received  from  the  railway  companies  by  the  Board  of 
Trade.  The  table  is  entitled — “ Statement  of  the  number  of  ‘ accidents  attended  with 
personal  injury  or  danger  to  the  public,  arising  from  causes  beyond  the  control  of  passen- 
gers,’  distinguishing  the  number  of  persons  killed  and  injured  in  the  last  five  months  of 
the  year  1840  ; in  each  year,  from  1841  to  1844,  and  in  the  first  six  months  of  the  year 
1845  ; showing  also  the  number  of  miles  of  railway  open,  the  number  of  passengers  con- 
veyed, and  the  proportion  of  those  injured  to  the  total  number  carried  in  each  of  the 
above  periods.” 


Years. 

No.  of 
acci- 
dents. 

NO.  PI 

Kill’d. 

:rsons  II 

Inj’rd, 
not  fa- 
tally. 

JJURED. 

Total. 

No.  miles 
of  railway 
open. 

Total  No.  of 
passengers 
carried. 

Prop,  of  persons 
injured  to  the 
total  number  of 
passengers  car- 
ried. 

Last  5 mo.  of  1840, 

28 

22 

131 

153 

l,330i 

6,029,866 

1 in  39,410 

“ 1841, 

29 

24 

72 

96 

l,556i 

20,449,754 

1 213,018 

“ 1842, 

10 

5 

14 

19 

l,717i 

21,358,445 

1 1,124,128 

“ 1843, 

5 

3 

3 

6 

l,798i 

25,572,525 

1 4,262,087 

“ 1844, 

34 

10 

74 

84 

1,912| 

30,363,052 

1 356,702 

1st  6 mo.  of  1845, 

15 

2 

30 

32 

2,118i 

16,720,550 

1 522,517 

RECEIPTS  OF  ENGLISH  RAILWAYS. 

The  London  Economist  furnishes  the  following  table,  showing  by  the  amounts  received 
the  increase  which  has  taken  place  in  railway  travelling,  and  in  the  transport  of  goods 
by  railway,  during  the  three  years  preceding  June  30th,  1845 : 


Yr.  ending  June  30,  Miles  open. 

1843,  l,798i 

1844,  1,912| 

1845,  2,118i 


Rec.  from  pass.  Rec.  fm.  goods,  etc. 

^13, 11 0,257  £1,424,932 

3,439,294  1,635,380 

3,976,341  2,333,373 


Total. 

£4,535,189 

5,074,674 

6,209,714 


The  increase  of  traffic  thus  shown,  is  still  progressing ; a fact  in  favor  of  the  system  of 
low  fares,  which  is  becoming  quite  popular  in  England. 


VOL.  XV. NO.  I. 


7 


98 


Railroad  and  Steamhoat  Slaiififirs. 


REDUCTION  OF  FARES  ON  ENGLISH  RAILWAYS. 

It  appears  from  tho  last  annual  report  from  the  Railway  Department  of  the  Rrilisf/ 
Board  of  Trade,  that  on  the  Grand  .Tunction  Line,  98  miles  long,  the  fares  have  been 
reduced,  since  the  1st  of  January,  1844,  on  the  first-class,  from  24h.  fid.  to  17h.  ; and  on 
the  second,  from  18s.  to  14s.  On  the  Great  North  of  England,  4.9  miles  long,  fir.st-ela."‘', 
from  13s.  to  93. ; and  on  the  second,  from  9s.  to  8s.  On  the  Great  Western,  1 miles 
long,  first-class,  from  30s.  to  27s.  Gd. ; second,  from  21s.  to  I8s.  Gd.  On  the  Leeds  and 
Selby,  G miles  long,  first-class,  from  2s.  to  Is.  4d. ; second,  froip  Is.  Gd.  to  la.  On  the 
London  and  Birmingham,  112^  miles  long,  finst-class,  from  30s.  to  2.33.;  second,  from 
20s.  to  17s.  On  the  London  and  Brighton,  50  miles  long,  first-cla.ss,  from  12s.  to  lO.s.  ; 
second,  from  8s.  to  7s.  Gd.  On  tho  London  and  Croydon,  10^  miles  long,  first-class,  from 
2s.  3d.  to  Is.  3d.;  second,  from  Is.  9d.  to  Is.  On  the  Southwestern,  94  miles  long,  first- 
class,  from  23s.  6d.  to  19s.  Gd.,  and  added  a second-class  at  ISs.  On  the  Maiiehestcr 
and  Birmingham,  85  miles  long,  first-class,  from  23s.  to  L'js. ; second,  from  178.  to  11s.  Gd. 
On  the  Manchester  and  Leeds,  51  miles  long,  first-class,  from  15s.  to  lls. ; second,  from 
9s.  6d.  to  8s.  Gd.  On  the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle,  GO  miles  long,  first-class,  from  IGs.  to 
12s. ; second,  12s.  to  9s.  On  the  North  Union,  22  miles  long,  first-class,  from  8s.  Gd.  to 
4s.  6d. ; second,  from  4s.  to  3s.  On  the  Southeastern,  88  miles  long,  first-class,  from  ISs, 
6d.  to  15s.;  second,  from  12s.  to  10s.  On  the  York  and  North  Midland,  24  miles  long, 
first-class,  from  7s.  to  Gs.;  second,  from  5s.  to  43.  Gd.  In  addition  to  these  reductions, 
great  facilities  and  reductions  have  been  afforded  by  third-class  carriages  and  return 
tickets,  of  which  no  note  is  taken.  Since  the  close  of  the  year,  further  reductions  have 
taken  place  on  some  of  the  lines,  which,  of  course,  are  not  included  in  this  report.  On 
the  following  lines,  no  reductions  have  been  made  : — Birmingham  and  Gloucester,  Hull 
and  Selby,  Lancaster  and  Preston,  Midland,  and  Preston  and  Wyre.  The  total  length  of 
new  railways  opened  in  1844  was  195  miles  45^  chains  ; and  in  1845, 293  miles  77  chains. 

TROY  AND  GREENBUSH  RAILROAD. 

This  road,  which  was  partially  opened  for  travel  on  the  13th  of  June,  1845,  extends 
from  the  city  of  Troy  to  Greenbush,  opposite  Albany,  and  is  six  miles  long.  It  appears, 
by  the  last  annual  report  of  the  directors,  made  to  the  Assembly  of  New  York,  that  the 
cost  of  construction  to  January  1st,  1846,  was  ^233,371  39.  The  receipts  of  the  com- 
pany from  June  13th,  1845,  when,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  road  was  only  partially 
opened,  to  the  first  of  January,  1846,  was  from  98,711  passengers,  ^12,200  86,  and 
from  freight,  ^3,647  32;  making  a total  of  ^15,846  18.  The  expenses  for  the  same 
period  were  ^5,981  21  ; and  the  dividends  made  to  stockholders,  ^7,843  62.  The 
number  of  miles  run  by  passenger  trains  was  13,636  ; for  freight  do.,  500  miles.  The 
company  have  three  locomotives,  and  two  Troy-built  cars,  handsomely  furnished,  and  as 
commodious  and  convenient  as  any  we  have  ever  seen.  The  company  have  judiciously 
adopted  the  lowest  rate  of  fare,  (12^  cents)  two  cents  per  mile.  There  are  no  roads  in 
the  United  States  more  efficiently  managed,  or  better  conducted  than  the  Troy.  The 
“ Rensselaer  and  Saratoga,”  the  “ Schenectady  and  Troy,”  and  the  “ Troy  and  Green- 
bush” railroads,  all  pass  through  the  main  street  of  the  city,  and  take  up  passengers  at 
the  door  of  each  of  the  principal  hotels,  the  “ Mansion  House,”  the  “ Troy  House,” 
etc. ; and  although  owned  by  different  companies,  they  are  all  under  the  management  of 
Mr.  L.  IL  Sargent,  a most  experienced,  intelligent,  and  efficient  superintendent ; a cir- 
cumstance which  secures  the  utmost  regularity  as  w'ell  as  safety.  The  travel  over  the 
Troy  and  Greenbush  road  since  the  last  report  has  been  constantly  increasing,  and  we 
have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  stock  must  soon  take  rank  with  the  best  in  the  coun- 
try. 'I'lic  first  semi-annual  dividend  was  4 per  cent  on  the  capital  invested.  The  cars 
leave  Troy  and  Greenbush  every  hour  during  tho  day  and  evening. 


Foreign  Affairs 


79 


memorial  to  Queen  Victoria  has  given  great  satisfaction  in  both 
countries.  It  will  be  the  first  State  visit  after  the  period  of 
mourning,  and  this  early  meeting  between  the  two  monarchs 
augurs  well  for  a new  era  in  the  relations  of  this  country  and 
Germany.  For  some  time  past  it  has  been  patent  that  if  the 
peace  of  the  world  is  to  be  maintained,  the  people  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  people  of  Germany  must  be  close  friends.  This 
knowledge  is  at  last  coming  home  to  both  nationalities,  and  there 
are  on  all  sides  indications  of  a desire  tp  heal  the  breach  and  to 
shake  hands  and  be  friends.  This  was  th&  earnest  wish  of  King 
Edward  and  this  is  the  earnest  wish  of  King  George.  It  only 
remains  for  politicians  to  heal  their  differences  and  for  common 
sense  to  prevail. 


THE  BAGHDAD  RAILWAY 

One  of  the  most  welcome  signs  of  a more  friendly  feeling 
between  Great  Britain  and  Germany  is  shown  in  the  change  of 
attitude  adopted  by  the  British  Press  towards  the  Baghdad 
Eailway.  When  the  undertaking  was  first  mooted  and  this 
country  was  invited  to  join  with  Germany  and  the  other  great 
Powers  in  constructing  the  line,  the  Press  of  this  country  actively 
opposed  the  proposition.  The  Government  of  the  day  had 
accepted  it  in  principle,  but  the  party  organs.  Conservative 
and  Kadical,  made  common  cause  against  the  idea,  and  so  Lord 
Lansdowne  was  compelled  to  abandon  the  position  he  had  taken 
up,  although  he  and  his  colleagues  were  not  one  whit  less  eager  to 
see  the  line  made  an  international  line  than  are  the  present 
administration.  Sir  Edward  Grey  would  have  us  believe  that, 
now  as  then,  it  is  only  a matter  of  agreement  as  to  conditions. 
With  all  deference  to  his  opinion,  I think  the  situation  to-day  is 
very  different  to  what  it  was  a few  years  ago.  Then  we  had  to 
meet  the  organised  opposition  of  the  Press.  To-day  there  is  no 
such  compelling  influence  at  work.  Instead  of  pressure  being 
brought  to  bear  on  the  Foreign  Minister  to  withdraw,  public 
opinion  has  veered  round,  and  although  conditions  are  still  all- 
important  they  do  not  occupy  that  overwhelming  position  before 
which  no  government  could  stand. 

In  my  article  last  month  I made  the  suggestion  that  we 
should  lose  no  time  in  opening  negotiations  with  the  Turkish 
government  as  to  the  Gulf  section,  and  more  especially  as  to  that 
part  of  it  which  is  to  connect  Basra  with  Koweit.  My  article  was, 
of  course,  in  type  before  the  month  closed.  On  February  9 
the  Ti^nes  correspondent  at  Constantinople  telegraphs  : 

Rifaat  Pasha,  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  has  intimated  to  the  British 
Ambassador  that  the  Porte  is  desirous  of  opening  pourparlers  with  the  British 


80 


The  Empire  Review 

Government  in  regard  to  the  questions  connected  with  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
Mesopotamia.  Official  circles  express  the  hope  that  diplomatic  conversations 
will  begin  in  a few  days’  time.  In  the  meantime  the  representatives  of  the 
Baghdad  Bailway  Company  are  discussing  the  prolongation  of  the  railway 
beyond  El  lielif  with  the  Minister  of  Finance.  I understand  that  the  rumour 
that  the  German  Government  has  officially  approached  the  Porte  in  regard  to 
proposals  for  the  settlement  of  the  question  of  the  construction  of  the  Gulf 
sections  of  the  railway  is  premature. 


With  regard  to  the  reference  to  Germany,  this  again  corre- 
sponds with  the  suggestion  put  forward  by  me  to  the  effect  that 
Germany  and  Turkey  should  also  consult  together.  But  my 
purpose  is  not  so  much  to  emphasise  my  own  anticipations  as 
to  draw  attention  to  the  common-sense  attitude  of  the  Times 
towards  what  I venture  to  regard  as  a most  important  civilising 
influence  in  the  Middle  East.  On  the  day  following  the  receipt 
of  the  above  telegram  the  Times  offers  the  following  editorial 
contribution  to  the  solution  of  the  difficulty  : 

The  information  which  we  published  yesterday  from  our  Constantinople 
correspondent,  that  the  Ottoman  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  has  intimated  to 
the  British  ambassador  the  desire  of  the  Porte  to  initiate  an  exchange  of  views 
with  the  British  Government  in  regard  to  questions  connected  with  Mesopo- 
tamia and  the  Persian  Gulf,  though  not  yet  officially  confirmed,  is,  we  trust,  of 
good  omen.  If  those  questions  can  be  settled,  as  we  are  firmly  convinced  they 
can  be,  in  conformity  with  the  important  interests  of  Great  Britain  in  those 
regions  and  with  the  dignity  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  many  of  the  difficulties — 
perhaps  the  chief  ones — which  an  arrangement  with  regard  to  the  Baghdad 
Bailway  presents  for  this  country  will  be  considerably  mitigated,  if  not  wholly 
removed.  At  any  rate,  if  by  agreement  with  Turkey  we  can  uphold  our 
legitimate  influence  in  the  Gulf  and  in  Mesopotamia,  the  political  aspects  of 
the  Baghdad  Bailway  question  will  be  materially  simplified,  and  it  is  those 
aspects  which  must  be  the  chief  matter  of  concern  to  British  statesmanship. 

That  is  and  always  has  been  my  case.  What  we  have  to  do  is  to 
secure  our  legitimate  influence  in  the  Gulf  and  in  Mesopotamia. 
And  the  only  way  to  obtain  this  end  is  by  coming  to  some  agree- 
ment with  Turkey  and  with  Germany.  For  the  exact  same 
purpose  as  we  did  Eussia  also  stood  aloof,  but  the  Potsdam  con- 
versations brought  about  a complete  change  of  face  on  the  part  of 
Eussia,  and  once  that  happened  Great  Britain  and  France,  if 
not  anxious,  were  at  any  rate  far  from  unwilling  to  reconsider 
their  positions.  Eussia,  France  and  this  country  are  now 
beginning  to  see  that  nothing  they  can  do  can  prevent  the  line 
being  built  as  far  as  Basra,  and  this  being  so  obviously  no  one 
of  these  Powers  desires  to  shut  itself  out  from  any  benefits  that 
may  accrue  from  the  undertaking.  This  country,  too,  has  the 
all-important  purpose  in  view  of  keeping  control  of  the  territory 
between  Basra  and  Koweit,  and  that  cannot  be  done,  or  at  least 
such  control  may  bo  jeopardised,  by  not  taking  time  by  the  fore- 


Foreign  Affairs 


81 


lock  and  coming  to  a satisfactory  conclusion  with  Turkey  and 
Eussia  over  this  last  section  of  the  Baghdad  Eailway.  France, 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted,  will  follow  Kussia’s  lead. 

In  the  course  of  an  interesting  article  on  the  railway  in  the 
Journal  des  Dehats,  a contradiction  is  given  to  the  statement 
that  the  attempts  on  the  part  of  German  and  French  parties  to 
secure  the  quotation  of  the  railway  bonds  in  Paris  failed 
because  the  French  Government  was  hostile  to  the  scheme. 
“ They  failed  because  the  Eussian  Government,  which  was  at 
that  time  ill-inspired  and  short-sighted,  believed  that  it  was  in 
the  interest  of  Eussia  to  create  as  many  difficulties  as  possible 
for  an  enterprise  which  it  judged  to  be  perilous  for  itself.  Eussia 
refused  to  recognise  that,  once  the  concession  had  been  granted, 
the  construction  of  the  line  was  inevitable,  and  that  it  was 
infinitely  preferable  both  for  her  and  for  France  to  secure  the 
participation  of  French  capital  on  a considerable  scale,  together 
with  a corresponding  share  in  the  control  and  management  of  the 
line.  She  is  now  paying  the  price  of  this  error.  Since  that  date 
the  situation  has  changed  entirely  to  the  advantage  of  the  Baghdad 
Eailway  Company.”^  This  explanation  affords  a curious  sidelight 
on  the  whole  proceedings,  and  indicates  the  mistake  made  by 
Great  Britain,  France  and  Eussia.  In  the  circumstances  it 
can  hardly  be  expected  that  Germany  and  the  German  syndicate 
which  has  financed  the  line  will  accept  the  same  terms  as  they 
were  ready  to  do  before  a sod  was  turned. 

All  the  money  required  for  the  first  two  sections  is  subscribed, 
and  it  only  remains  to  finance  the  third  section.  It  is  no  longer 
any  use  Great  Britain  trying  to  secure  the  control  of  the  whole  of 
that  section.  What  we  must  do  is  to  obtain  a financial  interest  in 
the  line  and  to  obtain  the  greatest  interest  we  can  get,  but  above 
and  beyond  all  we  must  ourselves  build  a line  joining  Basra  with 
Koweit.  That  must  be  an  all-British  undertaking,  and  to  secure 
this  privilege  we  must  be  prepared  to  give  concessions  to  Turkey 
and  Germany.  But  we  have  no  time  to  lose.  The  longer  we  delay 
in  arriving  at  a satisfactory  conclusion  the  more  concessions  we 
shall  have  to  make.  The  railway  has  got  to  come  and  is  coming 
to  Basra.  For  this  purpose  Germany  has  secured  the  concession 
and  the  territory  is  Turkish  territory.  Nothing  France,  Eussia  or 
Great  Britain  can  do  can  prevent  the  railway  being  built.  The 
only  pity  is  that  common  sense  has  taken  so  long  to  prevail. 

* See  Times,  February  10. 


VoL.  XXI.— No.  122. 


H 


82 


The  Empire  Review 


GERMAN  NAVY  ESTIMATES 

The  German  Navy  Estimates  have  gone  through  without 
more  opposition,  a fact  I venture  to  commend  to  politicians  at 
Westminster.  In  the  course  of  his  observations,  liowever, 
Admiral  von  Tirpitz  again  referred  to  Mr.  McKenna’s  statement 
concerning  acceleration  which  caused  so  much  unrest  in  this 
country  two  years  ago.  “It  is  quite  an  astonishing  mistake  in 
England,”  said  the  Admiral,  “that  we  have  accelerated  the 
construction  of  our  navy  outside  the  provision  of  the  Navy  Law. 
That  would  only  have  been  possible  if  the  Eeichstag  had  voted  us 
the  money  for  the  purpose.  In  point  of  fact  we  have  not  bad  a 
penny  for  the  purpose,  and  so  we  have  been  strangely  affected  by 
this  assertion  that  has  cropped  up  in  England.  There  has  been 
no  lack  on  our  side  of  explanation.” 

In  view  of  this  pronouncement  it  seems  hardly  creditable  that  a 
Liberal  Minister  should  have  made  the  remarks  he  did,  and  one  can 
only  hope  that  he  will  take  an  early  opportunity  of  offering  some 
explanation  as  to  how  he  was  led  into  committing  so  unfortunate  a 
mistake.  After  all  it  is  not  expected  that  the  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty  should  deliberately  make  an  assertion  which  has  to  be 
officially  contradicted  by  a foreign  Power.  This  is  not  the  way  to 
carry  on  the  naval  business  of  the  country.  As  I have  always 
said  our  business  is  to  set  our  own  house  in  order,  and  not  to  try 
and  set  other  people’s  houses  in  order.  It  is  an  open  secret  that 
the  Government  during  the  first  three  years  of  office  since  1905 
cut  down  the  naval  estimates  to  such  a low  ebb  that  the  country 
would  have  been  in  danger  had  it  been  attacked.  Then  to  try 
and  get  the  rank  and  file  of  his  party  to  follow  him  into  the  lobby 
and  vote  his  increased  estimates  the  First  Lord  set  about  creatinor 

t? 

a naval  scare  which  alarmed  the  whole  Empire  and  involved  an 
accusation  against  Germany  which,  it  is  clear  from  the  statement 
made  by  the  German  naval  minister,  had  no  foundation  in  fact. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  such  a mistake  should  have  occurred, 
and  it  would  be  well  if  Mr.  McKenna  were  to  make  some 
explanation  from  his  seat  in  Parliament.  We  cannot  afford 
to  offend  foreign  and  friendly  powers  by  making  statements 
calculated  to  offend  if  these  statements  cannot  be  substantiated. 

I am  all  for  a strong  navy,  and  the  stronger  the  better,  and  I 
have  sufficient  belief  even  in  the  Kadicals  that  if  facts  and  not 
fiction  arc  placed  before  them  they  will  more  readily  appreciate 
the  position. 


Edwakd  Dicey. 


Railroad  Statistics, 


569 


The  execution  of  these  contracts  with  the  companies  will,  moreover,  require  on  the 
part  of  the  state  an  outlay  of  about  800,000,000  francs,  equal  to  ^150,000,000;  or,  ad- 
ding the  two  sums  together,  we  have  1,255,000,000  of  francs  ; or,  in  our  currency, 
^235,312,500. 


BRITISH  RAILWAY  STATISTICS. 

At  a recent  meeting  of  the  liondon  Statistical  Society,  Mr.  Porter,  the  Treasurer  of 
the  society,  read  “ an  examination  of  tlie  returns  made  by  the  various  railway  compardes 
of  the  United  Kingdmm,  wdtli  respect  to  their  traffic,  during  the  year  ending  .30th  June, 

] 842.”  From  Mr.  Porter’s  paper,  which  is  of  high  statistical  value,  we  gather  the  follow- 
ing particulars : — 

The  returns  for  1813,  of  53  lines  of  railway,  of  which  41  are  in  England  and  Wales, 
10  in  Scotland,  and  2 in  Ireland,  demonstrate  that  there  were  conveyed  of  passengers  of 
the  first  clan«,  4,223,249  ; of  the  second  class,  10,968,001 ; of  the  third  class,  6,429,225  ; 
and  that,  with  reference  to  the  divisions  of  the  kingdom,  the  proportions  were,  for  Eng- 
land and  AVales,  of  passengers  of  the  first  class,  3,882,171  ; of  the  second  class,  8,951,070; 
of  the  third  class,  4,060,321.  For  Scotland,  of  the  first  class,  245,757;  of  the  second 
class,  877,055  ; of  the  third  class,  1,529,717.  For  Ireland,  of  the  first  class,  95,321 ; of 
the  second  class,  1,139,936;  of  the  third  class,  839,157.  The  money  recenved  from  the 
whole,  was  3,063,032/. ; and  the  average  charge  to  each  passenger  in  England  and  Wrdes, 
of  the  first  class,  wms  82d. ; of  the  second  class,  31^4. ; of  the  third  class,  19^4.  In  Scot- 
land, of  the  first  class,  40-^4.;  of  the  second  class,  16^1.;  of  the  third  class,  9^d.  In 
Ireland,  of  the  first  class,  lO^d. ; of  the  second  class,  7d. ; of  the  third  class,  5^d.  The 
great  difference  that  exists  between  the  average  fares  paid  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land, is  occasioned  by  the  greater  length  of  the  English  lines  of  railw'ay  beyond  those  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  the  greater  length  of  the  Scottish  lines  beyond  those  of  Ireland. 
In  the  short  period  between  1833  and  1841,  Mr.  Porter  states  the  amount  of  railway  tra- 
velling throughout  the  kingdom  to  have  been  quadrupled.  The  amount  of  receipts  from 
63  railroads,  for  1843,  for  the  conveyance  of  carriages,  horses,  cattle,  minerals,  and  gene- 
ral merchandise,  was,  in  England  and  Wales,  1,303,291/.;  in  Scotland,  104,839/.;  in  Ire- 
land, 6,832/.  The  average  cost  per  mile  cf  the  various  railways  in  England,  has  been 
31,522/. ; in  Scotland,  22,165/. ; a.rd  in  Ireland,  22,187/.  Mr.  Porter  concluded  his  paper 
by  drawi.ig  a comparison  of  the  working  of  English  railways  w ith  those  of  Belgium,  tlie 
only  country  in  Europe.,  besides  England,  in  which  such  works  have  hitherto  been  carried 
on  as  a system,  and  where  the  results  have  been  published.  At  the  end  of  1842,  there 
were  i-i  operation  in  that  kingdom  282  miles  of  railway,  the  average  cost  of  constructing 
which  wa.3  17,120/.  per  mile,  about  half  the  cost  in  the  United  Kingdom.  This  difference 
results  fi-om  a variety  of  causes.  la  the  first  place,  the  works  being  undertaken  by  tlie 
government,  there  were  no  expen.sive  parliamentary  contests ; no  opposing  interests  to  be 
bought  oiT;  no  unreasonable  compensations  to  be  paid  for  land  ; and,  from  the  nature  cf 
the  country,  there  were  comparatively  few  engineering  difficulties  to  be  overcome.  Be- 
sides these  circumstances,  there  has  been  much  present  saving  effected  in  the  manner  of 
executing -the  works,  which  have  been  performed  in  a less  perfect  manner  than  would 
satisfy  the  magnificent  ideas  of  an  English  engineer.  The  number  of  passengers  convey- 
ed along  the  various  lines  in  Belgium,  in  1642,  was  2,724,104,  there  being  in  Belgium  of 
the  first  class,  9 per  cent ; of  the  second  class,  25  per  cent ; of  the  third  class,  66  per 
cent;  whereas,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the  per  centage  was,  for  the  first  class,  19 ; the 
second  class,  51 ; the  third  class,  30.  The  receipts  for  passengers  were,  in  Belgium, 
Is.  4^  1.  for  a distance  of  19  males,  egainst  23.  2Jd.  in  the  United  Kingdom, for  a distance 
of  13^  miles. 


VOL.  XI. — NO.  VI. 


43 


570 


Nautical  Inlrlligcnrc. 


NAUTICAL  INTELLICENCE. 

LOSS  OF  VESSELS  ON  THE  BAHAMA  BANKS. 

Collector’s  Ofi  ick,  Port  of  Berth  Amboy. 

To  the  Editor  of  the  Mrvchariis'  Magazine  : — 

The  recent  losses  of  vessels  and  lives,  on  and  near  the  Ihiharna  hanks,  have  awakened 
imich  sympathy  in  every  breast,  and  produced  as  inueh  wonder  at  the  aj)athy  of  the  com- 
mercial world  in  regard  to  these  events.  It  is  well  known  that  nearly  all  vessels  hound 
for  ports  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  (xulf  of  Mexico,  avoid  as  much  as  possible  the  gulf 
stream,  between  the  latitudes  of  25  and  55  deg.  N.,  and  that  those  bound  westward  of  HO 
deg.  W.  longitude,  make  the  “ Hole  in  the  Wall,”  on  Abaco,  and  them  have,  in  thick 
and  stormy  weather,  a ticklish  and  anxious  navigation,  until  they  get  ()I1’  the  Jiahama 
bank,  and  ascertain  their  relative  situation,  when  steering  westward  through  the  gulf 
stream,  coursing  between  Cuba  and  the  Florida  Keys.  The  dangers  commence  after 
leaving  the  light  at  the  “ Hole  in  the  Wall.”  The  currents  between  the  south  end  of 
Abaco  and  the  Berry  islands,  are  strong  and  diverse.  On  the  Berry  islands,  which  have 
so  often  proved  the  fatal  end  of  many  a voyage,  there  is  no  light.  From  them,  when 
seen,  the  navigator  takes  his  departure  for  his  course  over  the  Bahama  bank.  If  wind 
and  weather  favors,  all  is  well — for  the  lead,  that  faithful  friend  to  the  sailor,  can  easily 
guide  the  course  ; but  the  danger,  and  a great  one  it  is,  is  in  missing  the  course,  and 
touching  on  the  Orange  Keys.  My  recommendation  to  merchants  would  be,  induce  the 
government  to  unite  with  England,  and  other  governments  most  concerned  in  the  naviga- 
tion of  those  seas,  to  place  a good  light  on  the  northern  Berry  island.  Put  a light-ship, 
well  furnished  with  fog-bell,  and  other  usual  appurtenances,  midway  the  channel  from  the 
Berry  isles  to  the  Orange  Keys,  in  three  fathoms  water,  in  about  lat.  25  deg.  20  min.,  and 
then  a beacon,  with  light,  on  the  Orange  Keys.  With  such  a range  tf  lights  and  precau- 
tions, the  navigator  could  cheerfully  run  his  vessel,  and  merchants  and  insurers  have  bet- 
ter hope  of  safety.  I have  often  wondered,  when  anxiously  going  over  the  track  above 
alluded  to,  how  it  could  be  that  the  merchants  of  our  country  could  be  so  easily  induced 
to  trust  their  vessels,  and  the  lives  of  their  friends,  over  a navigation  so  beset  with  dan- 
gers, and  yet  make  no  effort  to  point  out  to  the  notice  of  the  government  the  necessity  of 
some  appropriation  to  meet  the  case.  Vessels  and  property,  it  is  true,  may  be  insured, 
and  the  loss  made  up  ; but  no  insurance  can  recover  back  life,  experience,  and  energy  ; 
and  to  this  positive  loss,  insurers  should  direct  their  thoughts.  A government  Icses  much, 
indeed,  when,  by  shipwreck,  the  veteran  seaman — the  enterprising  youth — the  man  of 
business,  and  the  fond  family,  are  hurried  together  to  eternity.  The  late  gales  in  the 
West  Indies  have  done  vast  damage  ; but  the  damage  sustained  by  loss  of  life  in  naviga- 
ting a critical,  yet  neglected  course,  is  a reproach  on  owners,  insurers,  and  goAT-rnment. 
Awaken  the  attention  of  our  mercantile  community  to  this  subject ; and,  ere  Congress 
shall  convene,  something  may  be  done  to  forward  public  energy  on  this  important  matter. 
Our  growing  southern  trade  demands  prompt  attention. 

Y ours,  in  the  cause  of  humanity.  “ An  Old  Salt.” 


SUNKEN  ROCK  NEAR  THE  ISLAND  OF  ROCKAL. 

Mr.  Bartlett,  of  the  brig  Guide,  of  Hull,  arrived  in  the  river,  from  Montreal,  reports 
that  off  the  small  island  of  Rockal,  lat.  57.  39.  N.,  long.  13.  31.  W.,  there  is  a clump  of 
hidden  rocks,  about  80  or  90  feet  in  length,  and  30  feet  in  breadth ; the  main  rock,  on 
Rockal,  bearing  from  the  outer  one  W.  by  N.  by  compass,  distance  8 miles.  “ On  the 
15th  April,  1844,  at  4 A.  M.,  sighted  Rockal,  bearing  N.  W.,  ship  lying  N.  W.  by  W., 
strong  gales  from  the  S.  W.  by  W.,  clear  weather.  Was  desirous  to  keep  my  reach  to  the 
N.  W.  Not  being  able  to  wcaljicr  Rockal,  bore  away  to  round  the  north  end — had  my 
mate  aloft,  and  myself  on  deck,  to  look  for  lueakers.  Suddenly  I found  the  vessel  be- 
tween the  outer  rock  and  the  main  one,  at  least  eight  miles  distant.  With  difficulty  I 
cleared,  by  hauling  the  ship  suddenly  on  the  starboard  tack,  being  not  more  than  one  sea 
from  the  ])roken  water — breaks  occasionally.  They  arc  bad  to  discern  aloft,  but  their  lo- 
cality may  be  seen  much  more  readily  off  deck,  by  the  color  of  the  water.  The  morning 
being  clear,  was  able  to  obtain  the  bearing  and  distance  pretty  correctly.” 


THE 


OF  THE 


LECTURES. 


June  1857. 

Colonel  the  Honourable  JAMES  LINDSAY  in  tlie  Chaii'i 


OH  TDK.  MILITAJ^y  ROADSIDE  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS, 
COMPARED  WITH  MODERN  BRITISH  RAILWAYS. 

By  the  Rev.  R.  Burgess,  B.D. 

I PURPOSE  in  this  lecture  to  enumerate  and  describe  those  great 
works  of  the  ancient  Romans,  with  a view  of  comparing  their  mag- 
nitude with  the  cast  iron  lines  that  now  traverse  a single  province  of 
the  old  Roman  dominions.  Unpromising  as  this  subject  may  seem, 
it  has  already  occupied  the  attention  of  arclneologists.  Nicolas 
Bergier,  the  French  antiquary,  who  died  in  1623,  has  left  two  quarto 
volumes  which  he  entitled  Histoire  des  Grands  Chemins  de  I’Empire 
Romain.  Pratilli,  a writer  of  the  last  century,  has  left  a book  on 
the  Via  Appia;  and  Volpi,  in  his  work  on  Latium,  treats  of  the 
roads  which  traversed  that  region.  These  learned  writers,  however, 
tell  us  nothing  of  the  Macadams  of  those  classic  days,  and  never  rise 
to  the  idea  of  a good  turnpike  road,  with  our  usual  quantity  of  toll 

Q 


208 


MIl.ITAnY  HOADS  OF  THE  HOMANS 


bars.  T])c  Latin  grammarians  distingiiisli  three  different  denomi- 
nations of  roads:  Via,  Actus,  Jter.  Tlie  Via  answers  to  tlic  Frcncli 
Route  Royale,  and  was  the  great  main  road  from  one  capital  or 
province  to  another;  such  were  called  Vice  Consulares.  Act?f,s  wc 
should  call  a bridle-road,  about  half  the  size  and  dignity  of  the  Via, 
adapted  for  donkeys  and  l)i23cds;  and  Iter  seems  to  be  a general 
term  for  any  path  Avide  enough  to  travel  upon.  The  office  of  taking 
care  of  the  public  roads  devolved  upon  the  Curutores^  who  appear 
to  have  had  about  the  same  poAver  to  inflict  penalties  for  damages 
or  trespasses  as  our  raihvay  companies  liave  to  keep  the  third  class 
in  order.  Some  grand  lines  of  road  Avere  planned  and  completed 
during  the  Republic,  but  the  earliest  and  most  successful  I'oadmakers 
of  the  empire  AA^ere  Julius  Caesar  and  M.  Agrippa;  of  the  latter 
Dion  Cassius  says,  that  Avhen  he  was  Aidile  in  the  year  of  the  city 
721,  he  restored  all  the  roads  AA’ithout  taking  a penny  from  the 
public  treasury.  The  Emperor  Augustus,  of  Avhom  it  has  been 
truly  said,  that,  Avdth  all  his  poAA^er  and  might,  he  had  neither  a 
glass  to  liis  AvindoAV  nor  a shirt  to  his  back,  Avas  magnificent  enough 
to  make  up  the  Flaminian  way  as  far  as  Ariminum  at  his  OAvn 
expense,  and  ordered  the  senators  to  do  the  same  to  all  the  other 
roads  at  their  expense  ; he  made  also  the  Milliarium  aureum^  of 
Avdiich  I shall  shortly  say  something,  and  on  the  occasion  of  this 
general  repairing  of  all  the  roads  that  issued  Jfom  Rome,  medals 
Avere  struck  in  commemoration  of  the  same,  Avith  the  superscription 
Quod  Vice  Munitce  sunt.  Nero  repaired  all  the  roads  in  Spain,  and 
I believe  modern  travellers  in  that  country  AA'Ould  like  much  to  see 
him  there  again.  Vespasian  Avas  a great  restorer  of  the  public 
Vijc,  and  Trajan’s  restoration  of  the  Via  Appia  is  immortalized  in 
sculpture.  Marcus  Antoninus  undertook  the  roads  in  Germany 
and  in  Belgium ; and  the  emperors  in  succession,  hoAA^ever  neglectful 
they  might  be  in  other  matters,  seldom  got  through  their  career 
Avithout  a little  engineering  in  this  line.  Finally,  Theodoric  is  the 
last  of  the  men  of  power  Ave  read  of  AAdio  repaired  roads  in  Italy. 
The  devastating  Avar  of  the  Goths  and  Greeks  put  an  end  to  all 
such  useful  enterprises,  and  the  roads  became  for  many  centuries 
almost  impracticable.  The  materials,  torn  up  or  pushed  from  their 
site,  were  used  for  erecting  toAvers  of  defence,  or  Avails  to  prevent 


COMPARED  AVITH  BRITISH  RAILWAYS. 


209 


incursions  of  barbarians,  and  not  until  civilisation  began  to  dawn 
did  the  highways  receive  any  attention  from  the  reigning  pow'ers  of 
Italy. 

I shall  now  say  a few  words  upon  the  materials  and  construction 
of  the  Vise  Antiquse.  Vitruvius  does  not  disdain  to  give  directions 
for  making  roads ; he  recommends  that  the  engineer  should  choose 
solid  ground  and  level  it,  and  upon  this  lay  his  first  covering ; and 
that  if  there  be  any  looseness  in  the  soil,  he  must  consolidate  it  by 
means  of  wooden  piles — ‘‘  Fistucationibus  cum  magna  cura  soli- 
detur.”  We  should  hardly  imagine  that  this  is  a subject  for  poetry, 
but  yet  it  is  from  a passage  in  the  Poet  Statius  that  we  chiefly  learn 
how  a road  was  commenced.  First  they  cut  two  parallel  furrows, 
to  indicate  the  width  of  the  road,  and  then  they  cut  down  between 
those  until  they  came  to  the  hard  bottom,  and  then  began  the  level- 
ling. As  the  construction  proceeded,  the  road  assumed  a slight 
convex  shape ; the  middle  or  top  was  called  the  dorsum,  or  back-bone 
of  the  way,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  Virgil,  in  aggere  vi^ roads  that 
were  left  in  the  rough  material  were  said  to  be  munitse,  but  Avhen 
covered  with  cut  polygonal  blocks,  it  was  a “ via  strata,”  from  whence 
is  derived  the  Italian  strada.  Specimens  of  this  ‘‘  opus  stratum”  are 
still  existing  on  the  Via  Ostiensis  and  the  Via  Appia,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Eome,  but  a piece  in  the  best  preservation  is  on  the  Via 
Albana,  the  triumphal  way  that  led  up  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Latialis,  on  the  Alban  Mount;  the  letters  V.  N.,  Via  Numinis,  may 
still  be  read  upon  this  pavement,  which  has  kept  its  place  for  near 
2,000  years.  All  these  remains,  and  many  others  that  might  be 
enumerated  about  the  hills  of  Frascati,  Preeneste,  and  Tivoli,  are  of 
the  same  description,  being  composed  of  large  polygonal  blocks  of 
basaltic  lava,  found  in  many  places  near  Eome,  particularly  in  the 
quarries  near  the  Lake  Eegillus,  under  the  Capuchin  convent  near 
Bovillse,  also  near  the  sepulchre  of  Cecilia  Metella.  This  sort  of 
stone  was  called  by  the  ancient  Eomans  silex^  or  lapis  siliceus,  and 
the  places  where  it  was  got  were  called  lapidicinse  siliceas;  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  offer  for  your  inspection  some  specimens  of  this 
material,  which  I gathered  with  my  own  hands  in  Italy.  The 
Eoman  Via3  were  edged  by  a step  on  each  side;  these  were  called 
crepidines,  margines,  or  umbones ; they  were  about  nine  inches  in 

Q 2 


210 


TMllJTAUy  HOADS  OK  THE  JiOMANS 


elovutioii.  The  otlier  materials  used  in  roads  were  a mixture  of 
broken  fragments  of  all  sorts,  called  “ I’udus,”  which  avc  should  c.all 
in  plain  Englisli,  rubbish ; terra  cotta,  called  tesla;  and  that  most 
plentiful  of  materials  used  in  all  the  works  of  Jiome,  tufo.  I also 
offer  some  specimens  of  that  article  taken  from  the  quarries  de- 
scribed by  Vitruvius,  near  Home.  The  Koman  roads  issuing  from 
the  gates  of  Koine,  or  branching  out  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood, 
were  tweiity-nine  in  number;  they  were  measured  by  a thousand 
paces,  Mille  Passuum,  Avhich  is  the  origin  of  tlie  Avord  mile,  and  short 
round  pillars,  called  milliaria,  marked  the  distances  from  each  gate. 
Tn  the  Forum  there  Avas  set  up  a pillar,  on  Avhich  Avere  inscribed  the 
distances  from  Koine  to  each  city,  Avhere  the  roads  respectively  had 
their  terminus.  'J'he  distances  Avere  not  measured,  as  has  been 
erroneously  supposed, from  this  pillar  or  golden  milliarium,  but  they 
Avere  measured  from  the  gates.  This  fact  of  the  distances  being 
measured  from  the  gates,  is  ascertained  by  the  first  milliarium  on 
the  Via  Appia  having  been  found  in  its  place  in  the  Vigna  Nari,  on 
the  right  of  the  St.  Sebastian  gate,  and  the  distance  of  a 1,000  paces 
being  measured  by  Fabretti  toAvards  Koine,  Avas  found  to  coincide 
Avith  the  ancient  site  of  tlie  Porta  CajAena.  The  principal  roads 
issuing  from  the  gates  of  Koine  are  exhibited  on  the  sketch  before 
you,  but  you  Avill  not  expect  me  to  travel  Avith  you  on  them  all.  I 
must  select  tAvo  for  notice  and  one  for  detail,  Avhen  I have  first 
stated  the  authorities  Ave  have  for  the  names,  number,  and  direction 
of  all  the  roads  in  the  Western  emjiire.  There  are  three  ancient 
itineraries  which  have  come  down  to  us,  enumerating,  like  a modern 
Livre  de  Poste,  the  various  roads  and  distances  from  place  to  place. 
The  first  is  commonly  called  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus,  because  it 
Avas  made  and  published  during  the  peaceful  reign  of  the  Antonines, 
the  golden  period  of  the  Koman  empire.  During  those  forty  years 
of  peace  and  good  government,  the  arts  and  useful  public  works 
were  encouraged ; and  it  is  one  of  the  blessings  upon  Avhich  we  may 
congratulate  the  profession  of  architectural  science  and  art,  that  it 
flourishes  best  in  the  atmosphere  of  jAeace  and  good  Avill  on  earth. 
T1  ic  second  Itinerary  was  discovered  at  Augusta  (Aost),  in  the  pos- 
session of  a certain  Conrad  Peutinger,  and  is  knoAvn  under  the  name 
of  the  Carta  Peutingeriana ; it  is  evidently  of  Christian  times,  men- 


COjMPARED  with  BRITISH  RAILWAYS. 


211 


tion  being  made  of  St.  Peter’s  Church;  the  orthography  bctraj^s 
the  corrupted  language  of  the  eighth  century,  but,  notwithstanding 
these  defects  of  composition  and  spelling,  it  is  a precious  document, 
and  unique  of  its  kind,  being  the  only  one  that  affords  us  the  least 
information  of  the  state  of  the  world  at  that  period.  The  third  of 
these  ancient  Itineraries  was  found  at  Bordeaux;  it  describes  the 
journey  from  that  city  to  Jerusalem,  and  is  known  on  that  account 
iLiider  the  title  of  the  Jerusalem  Itinerary ; it  appears  to  be  of  about 
the  same  date  as  the  Carta  Peutingeriana.  These  are  the  three 
documents  from  which  is  to  be  gathered  all  that  can  be  known  of 
the  public  roads  of  the  Eoman  empire.  The  two  ancient  Vise  best 
known  to  the  present  world  are  the  Via  Flaminia,  by  which  tra- 
vellers from  the  North  enter  Rome,  and  the  Via  Appia,  by  which 
they  leave  it  to  travel  to  Naples.  The  Via  Aurelia,  which  led  to 
Centum  Cella3,  now  Civita  Vecchia,  has  recently  acquired  a celebrity 
which  it  never  enjoyed  in  ancient  times. 

The  Via  Flaminia,  however,  does  not  proceed  in  the  direction  of 
the  modern  road  to  Florence  beyond  the  Ponte  Molle  ; after  passing 
that  bridge,  which  is  two  miles  from  the  gate,  the  post  road  falls  in 
with  the  Via  Cassia,  and  the  Via  Flaminia  leads  into  solitudes  and 
Mount  Soracte.  This  celebrated  Roman  road  Avas  constructed  by 
Caius  Flaminius,  the  unfortunate  consul  aaJio  fell  at  the  battle  of 
Thrasimene  ; at  that  time  the  Flaminian  gate  was  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  Corso,  under  the  Capitoline  Hill,  so  that  it  Avas  ahvays 
reckoned  ad  Pontem  iii.  The  Via  runs  through  the  Campus 
Martius  ; it  ended  at  Arimenum,  noAv  Rimini,  a distance  of  222 
miles  ; it  passed  through  Narni,  Terni,  Spoleto,  before  it  cut  through 
the  Appenines  to  reach  Pisaro,  and  in  some  places,  especially  betAveen 
the  Ponte  Molle  and  Soracte,  considerable  remains  of  it  may  be 
traced.  The  road  Avhich  I shall  rather  seek  noAv  to  describe,  and 
make  the  object  of  comparison,  is  the  Via  Appia,  upon  Avhlch  were 
bestowed  the  greatest  care  and  expense,  both  under  Republican  and 
Imperial  Rome.  It  Avas  chiefly  on  the  Appian  way  that  the  great 
triumphal  processions  approached  Rome  from  the  East  ; the  chariot 
Avheels  of  Pompey  and  triumphant  Sylla  moved  over  its  paA^ement, 
Avhich,  in  some  places,  still  exists  ; its  splendid  sepulchral  monu- 
ments on  each  side  of  it  have  left  their  skeletons  to  mark  its 


212 


MILITARY  ROADS  OF  THE  ROMANS 


direction  ; and  we  may  still  stand  near  the  tomb  of  Cecilia  Metella, 
and  imagine,  amidst  the  stillness  which  now  prevails,  the  shouts  of 
the  applauding  multitudes  which  welcomed  Cicero  from  exile. 
This  was  called  the  Queen  of  Roads,  as  Statius  the  poet  sings  : 

Appia  Longarum  tcritur  regina  Viaruni. 

This  road  was  first  constructed  by  Appius  Claudius,  the  censor, 
310  years  before  the  Christian  era  ; it  was  repaired  and  laid  down 
in  many  places  with  new'  silex  by  Trajan,  and,  in  all  probability, 
made  entirely  anew  from  Beneventum  to  Brundusium  ; several  of 
the  milliaria  arc  still  standing  along  the  Pontine  Marshes,  bearing 
inscriptions  which  tell  us  that  Trajan  laid  it  down  with  silex,  at  his 
own  exj^ense,  silice  siid  pcciinid  stravit,  and  the  dates  square  with 
the  104tli  year  of  the  Christian  era.  We  have  a graphic  description 
of  the  Via  Appia  given  by  the  secretary  of  Iklisarius  in  the  sixth 
century,  w'hich  it  will  be  interesting  to  hear.  “ To  traverse  the 
Appian  Way,”  says  Procopius,  is  a distance  of  five  days’  journey 
for  a good  walker,  and  it  leads  from  Rome  to  Capua  ; its  breadth  is 
such  that  two  chariots  may  meet  upon  it,  and  pass  each  other  with- 
out interruption,  and  its  magnificence  surpasses  that  of  all  other 
roads.  For  constructing  this  great  -work,  Appius  caused  the 
materials  to  be  fetched  from  a great  distance,  so  as  to  have  all  the 
stones  hard,  and  of  the  nature  of  millstones,  such  as  are  not  to  be 
found  in  this  part  of  the  country  ; having  ordered  this  material  to 
be  smoothed  and  polished,  the  stones  were  cut  in  corresponding 
angles,  so  as  to  fit  together  in  jointures,  wnthout  the  intervention  of 
copper,  or  any  other  material  to  bind  them,  and  in  this  manner  they 
were  so  firmly  united,  that  in  looking  at  them  one  would  say  they 
had  not  been  put  together  by  art,  but  had  grown  so  upon  the  spot, 
and  notwithstanding  the  w^earing  of  so  many  ages,  being  traversed 
daily  by  a multitude  of  vehicles  and  all  sorts  of  cattle,  they  still 
remain  unmoved,  nor  can  the  least  trace  of  ruin  or  waste  be  observed 
upon  these  stones,  neither  do  they  appear  to  have  lost  any  of  their 
beautiful  polish  ; and  such  is  the  Appian  Way.”  Whatever  we  may 
say  about  our  modern  railways  and  great  works  of  the  present 
century,  the  paving  of  Appius  Claudius,  made  just  21 G1  years  ago, 
might  be  safely  recommended  to  the  study  of  the  Curators  of  Oxford 


COMPARED  WITH  BRITISH  RAILWAYS.  * 


213 


Street  and  the  Marylebone  Vestry  the  next  time  they  lay  their  heads 
together  to  make  a wooden  pavement.  I shall  give  but  one  specimen 
of  the  form  of  those  ancient  Itineraries  to  which  I have  alluded,  by 
taking  the  journey  from  Rome  to  Capua,  properly  called  the  Via 
Appia  ; the  further  distance,  from  Capua  to  Brundusium,  must  be 
considered  as  an  addition  made  subsequently.  The  Itinerary  of 
Antoninus  gives  the  stages  and  distances  thus  ; 


Ariciam  . 

M.  P.  XVI. 

Tres  Tabernas 

M.  p.  xvir. 

Appii  Forum 

M.  P.  XVIII. 

Tarracinam 

M.  P.  XVIII. 

Fundos  . 

M.  P.  XVI. 

Formiam 

M.  P.  XIII. 

Minturnas 

M.  P. IX. 

Sinuessam 

M.  P. IX. 

Capuam  . 

M.  P.  XXVI. 

The  Via  Appia  coincides  with  the  modern  road  that  now  leads  from 
the  church  of  S.  Cesario,  where  the  Via  Latina  branches  out  from 
it,  to  the  church  of  S.  Sebastiano ; continual  traces  of  the  old  pave- 
ment may  still  be  seen,  as  the  way  runs  betweens  the  naked  masses 
of  sepulchres  to  the  ruins,  commonly  called  Roma  Vecchia;  a little 
beyond  those  ruins,  which  appear  to  be  the  remains  of  a little 
castrum,  the  old  via  falls  in  with  the  modern  road  to  Albano,  which 
leaves  Roma  by  the  Porta  S.  Giovanni  Laterano ; at  ten  miles  from 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Capena  gate,  which  stood  under  the  Therm?? 
of  Caracalla,  is  to  be  recognised  the  site  of  the  ancient  Bovillse; 
and  in  going  from  thence,  the  Via  Appia  passes  through  the  slope 
of  the  Alban  hills,  and  reaches  the  VaUey  of  Ariccia ; here  we  find 
the  first  great  Avork  which  belongs  to  this  queen  of  Roman  Avays, 
The  modern  road  passes  through  the  toAvn  of  Ariccia,  but  the  old 
via  passed  beneath  it,  having  to  traverse  a valley,  and  to  sustain  its 
level.  It  is  here  that  we  find  those  magnificent  substructions  to 
Avhich  I have  already  alluded;  the  Avhole  extends  for  a length  of  100 
geometrical  paces,  and  the  greatest  depth  or  elevation  is  33  ft.,  the 
least  3 ft. ; the  whole  is  a solid  mass,  except  three  arches,  used  for 
economising  of  materials,  and  for  greater  solidity;  and  I do  not 
perceive  that,  in  the  whole  sixteen  miles  which  we  have  now  travelled 
from  Rome  on  this  via,  there  are  any  great  cuttings  or  levellings 


214 


MILITARY  1K)AT).S  OF  TTIE  KOMAXS 


which  would  pass  tlie  ordinary  labour  of  laying  down  a road ; from 
Ariccia  we  descend  to  Genzano,  and  npproach  the  T.ake  ofNerni. 

The  Via  Appia,  having  now  reached  the  edge  of  the  routine 
Marshes,  runs  in  a dead  flat  to  Terracina  ; the  next  two  stages 
(mutationes)  after  Ariccia,  bring  us  to  names  consecrated  in  sacred 
history  ; the  Christians  of  Home  thought  it  not  a journey  too  far  to 
go  out,  some  thirty-three  miles,  and  some  fifty-one,  to  meet  the 
great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  coming  from  I’uteoli,  at  Appii  Forum 
and  the  dlirce  I'averiis.  But  at  Terracina  it  was  necessary  to  cut 
away  the  rock,  to  make  room  for  a passage  between  Anxur  and  the 
sea-shore  ; the  white  rocks  of  Anxur  still  shine  in  the  sun,  as  they 
did  when  Horace  made  his  journey  to  Brundusium,  and  1 consider 
this  passage  of  the  rocks  of  Anxur  to  have  been  the  second  great 
work  in  making  the  Via  Appia.  Sixteen  miles  further  is  the  town 
of  Fondi,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  much  labour  has  been  expended 
about  that  ancient  town,  and  about  Itri,  in  carrying  on  the  straight 
line  of  road,  but  after  clearing  Formia,  near  the  present  INIola  di 
Gaeta,  the  difficulties  must  have  ceased  ; the  famous  Miuturnian 
Marshes  might  require  a large  quantity  of  the  ruhus  and  fistu- 
cationes  of  Vitruvius,  to^  gain  a solid  bottom,  but  nothing  serious 
obstructs  the  engineer  until  he  arrives  at  Capua,  having  effected  a 
distance  of  142  miles.  There  is  one  particular  in  which  the 
engineering  of  Roman  roads  and  modern  railways  coincided,  they 
both  pursued  a straight  line,  both  filled  up  hollows,  or  bestrode 
vallies  and  glens  by  viaducts  and  bridges,  both  cut  through  hills, 
and  cleared  away  opposing  rocks,  and  even  a tunnel  is  not  wanting 
to  compare  with  some  of  our  own,  in  the  Grotto  of  Posilipo,  near 
Naples,  and  the  cuttings  of  the  rocks  of  Anxur  may  be  placed  at 
humble  distance  with  the  blasting  of  the  cliff  at  Dover.  But  in 
making  these  comparisons,  it  is  always  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
ancients  had  no  gunpowder,  and  wanted  all  those  mechanical  inven- 
tions which  modern  science  has  given  us  ; but  even  in  a comparison 
of  manual  labour  and  quantity  of  material,  it  might,  I think,  be 
shown  that  all  the  great  works  of  the  Roman  Empire  would  hardly 
equal  in  the  aggregate  the  works  which  now  exist  in  a single,  and 
that  the  most  contemptible  province  of  the  dominions  of  Augustus 
Cicsar.  Jiefore  I proceed  to  speak  of  our  own  great  works,  I will 


COMPARED  WITH  BRITISH  RAILWAYS. 


215 


enumerate  some  of  those  of  the  greatest  celebrity  belonging  to  the 
ancient  Romans.  The  substructure  of  the  Ariccian  Valley  may  be 
calculated  by  cubic  feet  of  masonry,  if  we  may  so  call  these  large 
masses  of  stone  laid  one  upon  another  ; taking  those  substructions 
at  500  ft.  in  length,  18  ft.  in  mean  depth  or  height,  and  a width  of 
26  ft.  as  measured  by  Pratilli,  and  supposing  the  mass  to  be  solid 
and  uniform,  we  get  an  amoimt  of  234,000  cubic  feet.  I have 
already  mentioned  the  cutting  of  the  rock  of  Terracina  ; another 
example  of  great  manual  labour  is  to  be  seen  in  going  from  Rocca 
di  Papa  to  the  Via  Latina,  under  the  Mons  Algidus ; the  mount  is 
cut  for  a considerable  distance  down  to  a depth  of  50  ft.,  so  as  to 
give  a narrow  passage,  in  which  the  traveller  finds  himself  a 
prisoner,  if  any  one  chose  to  block  up  the  entrance  either  way. 
Again,  three  miles  from  Acqualagna  on  the  Via  Flaminia,  not  far 
from  Fossombrone,  there  is  a great  work,  a narrow  passage  cut  out 
of  a rock,  a part  of  which  is  even  cut  through,  so  that  an  arch  is 
formed  over  head;  it  appears  from  traces  of  inscriptions,  that 
Vespasian  was  the  author  of  this  bold  enterprise. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  Pont  de  Gard,  near  Nismes,  which 
I cite  because  it  was  a bridge  as  well  as  an  aqueduct.  Perhaps, 
the  greatest  work  of  all  is  the  Via  Trajana,  leading  to  his  bridge 
across  the  Danube;  there,  under  a perpendicular  cliff,  a road  is 
ingeniously  cut  out,  and  a foundation  given  to  it  by  means  of  beams 
inserted  in  the  rock ; and  every  one  must  admire  the  skill  which 
has  overcome  such  formidable  obstacles  to  making  a road.  Draw- 
ings illustrative  of  this  great  work,  and  a detailed  description,  may 
be  seen  in  Paget’s  work;  the  bridge  to  which  the  Via  Trajana 
led  was  the  same  as  that  which  is  sculptured  on  his  triumphal 
column. 

I shall  hardly  cite  as  works  of  human  labour  the  wonder  of  the 
Phlegrean  fields,  in  the  Bay  of  Baias;  for  there  the  earth  has  been 
cut  and  slashed  by  the  power  of  volcanic  action,  and  the  ground 
tunnelled  in  various  directions  without  the  intervention  of  the  iron 
instrument.  The  poets  in  these  regions  made  an  easy  descent  to 
Avernus.  Even  the  grotto  of  Posilipo  is  half-formed  by  nature, 
and  it  must  be  confessed,  wonderful  as  the  passages  are  which  are 
perforated  in  this  alluring  region,  that  the  Box  Tunnel  would 


2i0 


:RITLTTAIIY  PiOADS  OF  THE  ROMANS 


swallow  them  all,  and  a single  company  of  railway  directors  digest 
them  at  a sitting.  But  wc  have  Jiot  seen  all  the  niagnificcncc  or 
the  industry  of  the  Eomans.  Jn  the  Itineraries,  published  by 
Wesseliiig,  Gale  and  Stukeley  for  Britain,  and  INF.  Danville  ior  Gaul 
and  Italy,  Ave  may  acquire  some  idea  of  this  branch  of  Roman 
economy.  From  the  Avail  of  Antoninus  to  Rome,  and  from  thence  to 
Jerusalem,  that  is,  from  the  north -Avest  to  the  south-east  point  of 
the  empire,  Avas  measured  a distance  of  3,740  English  miles;  of 
this  distance  85  miles  only  Avere  sea-passages,  the  rest  was  the  road 
of  polished  silex,  such  as  1 have  described.  Rosts  Averc  established 
along  these  mighty  lines  of  high  road,  so  that  a hundred  miles  a 
day  might  be  Avith  ease  accomplished.  In  the  time  of  Theodosius 
(as  the  historian  Gibbon  quotes  from  Libanius)  a magistrate  went 
post  from  Antioch  to  Constantinople;  he  began  his  journey  at 
night,  Avas  in  Cappadocia,  1G5  miles  from  Antioch,  the  ensuing 
evening,  and  arrived  at  Constantinople  the  sixth  day  about  noon — 
the  distance  being  G85  miles.  This,  hoAvever,  is  not  equal  to  the 
speed  Avith  Avhich  the  Tartar  couriers  go  from  Constantinople  to 
Belgrade,  often  accomplishing  that  distance  of  800  miles  in  five  or 
six  days.  It  is  right  to  mention  a fact  related  by  Pliny,  as 
affording  an  example  of  the  quickest  travelling  in  a carriage  I am 
aAvare  of  in  ancient  times.  Tiberius  Nero,  Avith  three  carriages, 
accomplished  a journey  of  200  miles  in  tAventy-four  hours,  Avhen 
he  Avent  to  see  his  brother  Drusus,  who  Avas  sick  in  Germany. 

We  shall  noAV  turn  to  a single  province  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
and  Ave  see  with  Avonder  and  admiration  how  its  resources  of  wealth 
and  genius  have  surpassed  all  the  glory  of  the  then  knoAvn  world. 
The  distance  between  the  two  extremities  of  the  dominions  of  the 
Antonines,  exclusive  of  sea-passages,  Avas  3,G55  miles.  I am 
Avilling  to  suppose  that  this  great  line  of  road  was  laid  doAvn  Avith 
polished  stone,  and  might  have  cost  as  much  per  mile  as  the  Via 
Appia.  If  Ave  suppose  our  numerous  turnpike  roads  (some  of 
Avhich  were  made  at  a great  cost)  to  be  a set-off  against  the  branch 
roads  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Avhich  Avero  often  inferior  in  construc- 
tion, then  Avc  have  about  5,000  miles  of  railway  in  Great  Britain 
alone,  to  compare  Avith  the  great  line  which  joined  Jerusalem  Avith 
the  Firth  of  Forth.  We  have  no  means  of  estimating  the  cost  of  a 


compahed  with  British  railways. 


217 


mile  of  Roman  road  by  any  audited  account  of  expenses,  and  it  is 
not  easy  to  make  a comparison  of  labour.  The  following  may  help 
us  to  form  some  idea,  rather  than  any  estimate.  In  the  high-level 
Bridge  of  Newcastle,  the  quantity  of  masonry,  in  piers  and  in  land- 
arches,  approaches,  &c.,  is  681,609  cubic  feet,  and  the  cost  of  that 
masonry  was  £120,000.  I find  this  to  be  about  3s.  6^d,  let  us 
say  3s.  6(i.,  per  cubic  foot,  and  if  estimated  by  the  cost  of  labour, 
and  the  greater  difficulty  in  the  transport  of  material,  I doubt 
whether  the  old  Romans  could  do  it  for  less.  In  those  magnificent 
substructions  of  the  Via  Appia  near  Ariccia,  we  have  found  by 
measurement  (taking  the  whole  mass)  about  234,000  cubic  feet. 
Now  the  internal  mass  in  all  cases  was,  to  use  a Vitruvian  term, 
ad  em'plecton^  or,  as  we  might  call  it,  rubble ; making  all  due  allow- 
ance for  this,  I should  not  have  in  the  Valley  of  Ariccia,  reckoning 
the  stone-work  5 feet  on  each  flank,  more  than  100,000  cubic  feet, 
i.  e.  reckoning  at  3s.  6r?.  per  cubic  foot,  about  £17,000  worth  of 
real  masonry ; and  this  in  the  tenth  part  of  a mile  In  the  whole 
length  of  the  142  miles  to  Capua,  v/e  do  not  find  more  than  two 
other  extra  works,  viz.  at  Terracina  and  at  Fondi;  so  that  the  cost 
of  the  Via  Appia  would  not  probably  exceed  £32,000  (the  average 
price  of  a mile  of  our  railway)  above  the  ordinary  expenditure  of 
making  a common  road.  I confess  this  is  a vague  calculation,  if 
even  it  can  be  called  one ; but  if  it  should  be  raised  to  the  utmost 
stretch  of  imagination,  it  would  be  insignificant,  as  to  pounds 
sterling,  by  the  side  of  our  leviathan  railroads.  The  following  I 
have  on  good  authority,  as  the  average  cost  of  a mile  of  railway 
throughout  Great  Britain ; the  cost  being,  of  course,  very  unequal 
in  different  places : — 


£. 


Land 

Earthwork  . 

Tunnelling  . 

Masonry 

Viaduct  and  Large  Bridges 
Permanent  Iron  Road 
Stations 


. 6,000 
. 5,000 
. 3,000 


. 3,000,  ordinary  line 


. 3,000 
. 5,000 
. 4,000 


Law  Expenses,  Engineering,  Svrveying,  &c.  3,000 


£32,000. 


If  this  be  multiplied  by  5,000,  which  was  the  aggregate  length  of 


218 


INIlLITAllY  ROADS  OF  THE  HOMANS 


British  railways  in  1851,  and  is  now,  of  course,  considerably  larger, 
we  have  the  almost  fabulous  amount  of  IGO  millions,  a sum  fully 
equal  to  ten  times  the  revenue  of  all  the  Roman  provinces  in  the 
time  of  Augustus.  I have  spoken  of  234,000  cubic  feet  of  masonry 
and  rubble  as  contained  in  one  of  the  great  Avorks  of  the  Via 
Appia;  the  high-level  Bridge  at  NeAvcastlc  alone,  as  we  liave  seen, 
contains  of  masonry  081,600,  of  rubble  110,300,  of  concrete 
40,224,  total  844,220,  besides  5,050  tons  of  iron,  of  which  the 
Romans  knew  nothing;  the  whole  eost  of  this  undertaking  was 
£234,450.  The  cubic  feet  of  masonry  in  the  Britannia  Bridge, 
which  we  must  consider  as  a viaduct,  and  the  wonder  of  the  present 
age,  is  1,500,000,  and  the  cost,  approximately  calculated  by  Mr. 
Edwin  Clarke,  Avas  £001,805;  the  cost  of  tlie  Coinvay  Bridge,  Avith 
£38,500  Avorth  of  masonry,  was  £145,100;  and  finally  the  Tweed 
Viaduct  is  said  to  contain  tAvo  million  cubic  feet  of  masonry.  We 
have  then  in  these  four  great  Avorks  alone — the  Britannia  and  Con- 
Avay  bridges,  the  Newcastle  and  Beiuvick  viaducts  or  bridges,  near 
41- millions  of  cubic  feet  of  masonry;  the  Avhole  costing  not  less 
than  £1,280,000.  That  is  to  say,  if  Ave  could  find  in  the  Roman 
Empire  one  hundred  such  works  as  the  celebrated  substruction  of 
the  Via  Appia,  they  Avould  hardly  equal  in  masonry  or  stone-Avork 
these  four  productions  of  the  “ ultimi  Britanni ;”  this  is  independent 
of  such  material  as  the  ancient  Romans  could  not  procure,  and  for 
Avhich  we  must  not  charge  them; — 9,420  tons  of  iron  were  em- 
ployed in  the  Britannia  Bridge,  and  5,050,  as  I have  said,  in  the 
high-level  Bridge  of  NeAVcastle.  It  is  probable  that  whole  armies 
Avorked  at  the  Roman  roads,  bridges,  and  viaducts,  and  it  Avould  not 
be  fair  to  compare  their  mechanical  apparatus  Avith  the  scientific 
inventions  of  modern  times  ; but  it  may  be  doubted  Avhether  they 
ever  presented  such  a union  of  physical  poAver  as  Avas  seen  one  day 
on  the  Menai  Straits,  Avhen  650  men  Avere  employed  in  raising  the 
second  tube  of  the  great  bridge,  of  whom  380  were  sailors  ; and 
although,  as  I have  said,  Ave  have  but  little  or  no  data  to  go  upon 
for  making  a comparison  of  expenditure  and  labour,  yet  we  may 
gather  enough  to  maintain  the  proposition,  that  all  the  great  Avorks 
of  the  Roman  empire  connected  Avith  their  lines  of  communication 
did  not  equal  the  Avorks  of  a similar  kind  Avhich  noAV  exist  in  the 


COMPARED  AVITIl  BRITISH  RAILWAYS. 


219 


island  of  Britannia.  Another  thing  which  hinders  us  from  making 
comparisons  as  to  cost,  we  have  in  every  line  of  railway  £6,000  per 
mile  for  land — Appius  Claudius  cut  through  the  country  of  the 
Volsci  without  asking  the  price,  and  dispensed  with  all  juries  for 
assessing  damages.  The  ‘‘  mutationes  ” (hovels  where  they  changed 
horses)  were  all  the  stations  that  occurred  on  their  line — the  com- 
forts of  law  expenses  were  not  known,  and  I doubt  much  if  the 
surveyors  and  engineers  got  £1,200  a-mile.  I wish  I could  have 
found  how  many  sestertia  Trajan  paid  for  his  restoration  of  the  Via 
Appia,  but  all  the  data  I have  to  guide  me  in  the  calculation  of  that 
expenditure  are,  that  Trajan  paved  the  road  out  of  his  own  money, 
de  sud  pecunid  stravit ; this,  however,  is  more  than  can  be  said  for 
many  of  the  projectors  of  our  modern  railways — de  aliend  pecunid 
ferro  straverunt,  i.e.  they  laid  down  the  iron  with  other  people’s 
money,  might  be  a more  appropriate  inscription.  When  Augustus 
re-made  the  Flaminian  way  to  Eimini,  he  was  the  sole  shareholder, 
and  gave  no  scrip.  Julius  Caesar  and  Marc  Antony  raised  great 
works,  but  they  knew  nothing  about  raising  dividends ; but  that 
which  would  have  astounded  them  more  than  an  irruption  of  bar- 
barians, would  have  been  a bill  of  £1,800  for  every  mile  of  road  for 
parliamentary  and  law  expenses ; if  this  be  a true  average,  which  I 
have  authority  for  stating  that  it  is,  then  we  may  deduct  from  the 
cost  of  3,740  miles  of  Eoman  road,  which  led  from  Scotland  to  Je- 
rusalem, the  sum  of  £6,732,000;  and  if  those  worthies  of  old  time 
had  been  called  upon  to  make  5,000  miles  of  road  in  the  province 
of  Britain,  they  might  have  economized  30  millions  of  our  money 
by  paying  nothing  for  land.  In  estimating  the  value  of  a Eoman 
road,  therefore,  we  have  to  deduct  £7,800  a-mile  for  land  and  law, 
and  £4,000  for  stations,  and  £5,000  for  iron,  before  we  come  to  the 
materials  they  were  enabled  to  use ; in  other  words,  the  materials 
of  the  Eoman  road  and  labour  would  not  be  more  than  half  the 
cost  of  our  railways,  from  the  mere  fact  of  certain  expenses  being- 
absent,  which  they  could  not  understand ; but,  although  inferior  to 
the  Britons  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  the  art  of  spending  money, 
if  judged  by  the  present  state  of  the  science,  they  could  not  be 
despicable  engineers — their  levels  were  chosen  on  different  principles, 
but  their  lines  of  roads  passed  through  the  same  countries,  and  gene- 


220 


IMILITAKY  KOAD8  OV  THE  UOMA^JS 


rally  in  the  same  direction,  as  onr  railways.  A diagram  taken  from 
an  article  of  the  Quarterly  Review,  writlen  some  years  ago,  ex- 
hibiting a general  view  of  the  direction  of  the  principal  Roman 
roads  in  England,  shows  that  on  comparing  one  or  two  of  our  prin- 
cipal lines,  we  shall  find  that  the  Great  AVestern,  e.g.  supplies  the 
place,  with  a little  deviation  near  lieading,  of  the  iioman  iter  from 
London  to  Bath  and  Bristol ; the  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  and  on 
to  Leeds  and  York,  replace  the  northern  AVatling  Street;  the  Eastern 
Counties  follow  a Roman  way,  and  so  of  the  rest. 

In  boasting  of  the  gigantic  steps  which  the  art  of  road-making 
has  taken  in  our  time,  we  cannot  afford  to  depreciate  either  the 
genius  or  the  magnificence  of  the  ancient  Romans  in  this  matter. 
If  we  have  our  railway  under  the  cliffs  of  Dover,  Trajan  had  his 
road  under  2,000  feet  of  perpendicular  cliff  along  the  Ister;  if  we 
have  our  5,000  miles  of  rails,  the  Romans  had  their  4,000  miles  of 
chosen  road,  reaching  from  one  extremity  of  the  empire  to  the 
other;  if  we  have  our  leviathan  bridges  and  viaducts,  the  Romans 
had  theirs  over  greater  rivers  and  wider  vales  than  we  have  to  deal 
with ; and,  finally,  if  we  had  our  glass  bazaar,  one-third  of  a mile 
long,  in  Hyde  Park,  they  had  a golden  palace,  which  reached  a Avhole 
mile  on  the  Esqueline  Hill.  If  Ave  rise  superior  and  look  down  upon 
the  works  of  the  Romans,  it  is  not  so  much  that  we  have  gained  in 
unskilful  labour,  as  in  science.  Without  the  iron  and  the  science, 
their  Avorks  Avould  be  as  great  as  ours  ; it  is  in  mental  rather  than 
in  any  physical  energies,  that  Ave  have  the  pre-eminence  ; it  is 
AA^hat  our  last  great  poet  has  called  the  “ divine  particle,”  Avhich  has 
been  dilated  by  Him  avIio  gave  it  to  man,  that  has  enabled  us  to 
cope  with  the  very  elements,  and  wing  our  Avay  against  Avind  and 
'tide  over  oceans  and  seas  unknoAvn  to  the  ancients.  The  spirit 
of  a man  Avhich  is  in  him  is  capable  of  knoAving  the  things  of  a man, 
and  this  capability  it  is  the  business  of  all  associated  bodies  to  foster 
and  draAV  out ; it  is  not,  perhaps,  yet  knoAvn  of  Avhat  the  human 
thought  is  still  capable,  but  the  blessing  of  every  discovery  in  art 
or  science  which  procures  fresh  enjoyment  for  man  is,  that  it  brings 
brute  force  to  a discount,  and  teaches  to  mankind  the  lesson  of 
fraternity  and  peace  ; and  it  is  not  perhaps  too  much  to  say  that 
this  question  of  roads,  by  Avhich  all  nations  of  the  earth  are  brought 


COMPARED  WITH  BRITISH  RAILWAYS. 


221 


■within  the  possibility  of  meeting  again  on  some  plain  of  Shinar,  is 
calculated  more  than  any  other  human  instrument  to  rene’W  the  face 
of  the  earth. 


June  19th,  1857. 

Colonel  the  Honourable  JAMES  LINDSAY  in  the  Chair. 


The  means  of  practically  APPLYING  the  PRINCIPLES  of 
MEDICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  for  the  PRESERVATION  of 
the  health  of  soldiers  and  SEAMEN  in  FOREIGN 
CLIMATES. 

By  Dr.  Bird,  F.G.S. 

Last  year  I laid  before  you  the  principles  of  Medical  or  Noso- 
Geography;  in  other  "words,  the  faets  of  physical  geography  and 
vital  statistics,  inductively  used  for  investigating  the  la'ws  under 
■which  health  and  disease  are  distributed  through  the  human  family, 
and  in  various  latitudes.  On  that  occasion  I brought  to  notice,  lio-w 
that  this  promising  field  of  research  forms  only  part  of  medical 
, etiology,  or  a knowledge  of  the  causes  of  disease,  associated  with 
geographical  situation,  and  the  climatology  of  particular  countries ; 
and  that  if  those  entrusted  with  the  health  of,  or  in  command  of, 
either  soldiers  or  sailors  in  those  countries,  would  but  rightly  appre- 
ciate the  importance  of  the  duties  committed  to  them,  they  would 
endeavour  to  acquire  useful  knoAvledge  of  the  influence  of  climate 
on  health,  and  of  subjects  connected  Avith  the  treatment  as  well  as 
the  prevention  of  disease.  \ 

The  more  material  agencies  Avhich  geographically  regulate  not 
only  the  diversities  of  vegetable  and  animal  structure,  but  the  pro- 
duction of  disease  also,  are  the  geographico-meteorological  causes  of 
atmospheric  temperature  and  humidity,  measured  by  isothermal 
lines,  Avhich  connect  places  having  the  same  mean  temperature,  but 
which  differ  sensibly  from  the  lines  of  latitude.  The  mean^  tem- 
peratures calculated  from  an  equatorial  mean  of  81°  50'  Falir., 


222 


THE  HEALTH  OF  SOLHTEES  AND  SEAMEN 


according  to  Dr.  Brewster’s  formula,  and  wliich  differ  considerably 
from  the  mean  temperatures  obtained  by  observation,  arc  given  in 
the  annexed  Table  from  Daniell’s  Elements  of  IVIeteorology : 


\ 

Latitude. 

Observed  Mian 
Temperature. 

Mean  Tempera- 
ture calculated 
by  Formula. 

1 Difference. 

! 

Equator  - 

0 

0 

0 

8L50 

81-50  I 

1 

' 0-00 

Coluinbo 

. 

. 

6 

58 

79-50 

80-90 

1-404- 

Chandernagore 

- 

22 

52 

75-56 

75-10 

0-46- 

Cairo 

- 

- 

30 

2 

72-82 

70-56 

1-76- 

Funchal  - 

- 

- 

32 

37 

68-54 

68-62 

0-08-j 

Rome 

- 

_ 

41 

54 

60-44 

60-66 

0-22-j 

f- 

Montpellier 

- 

43 

36 

! 59-36 

59- 

0-36- 

Bourdeaux 

- 

- 

! 44 

50 

! 56-48 

57-82 

1-34  + 

Milan 

- 

- 

1 45 

28 

1 57-18 

58-28 

l-lO-f 

Nantes  - 

- 

- 

i 47 

13 

54-68 

55-35 

0-67+ 

8t.  Malo- 

. 

_ 

1 48 

39 

54-14 

53-85 

0-29- 

Paris 

- 

- 

48 

50 

51-89 

53-65 

1-76+ 

Brussels  - 

_ 

_ 

50 

50 

51*80 

51-47 

0-33- 

Dunkirk - 

- 

- 

51 

20 

50-54 

51-25 

0-71+ 

London  - 

- 

- 

51 

30 

50-36 

50-74 

0-38+ 

Bushey  Heath 

- 

- 

51 

37f 

; 51-20 

50-58 

0-62- 

Kendal  - 

- 

- 

54 

17 

46-02 

47-58 

1*56-1- 

New  Malton 

. 

- 

54 

10 

48-28 

47-53 

0 75- 

Lyndon  - 

- 

- 

54 

34 

48-90 

49-37 

0-47-+ 

Dublin  - 

- 

- 

53 

21 

49-10 

48-65 

0-45- 

Copenhagen 

- 

- 

55 

41 

45-68 

45-95 

0-274- 

Edinburgh 

- 

- 

55 

57 

46-23 

45-64 

0-59- 

Carlscrona 

- 

- 

56 

16 

46-04 

45-46 

0-58- 

Fawside  - 

- 

. 

56 

58 

' 44-30 

44-26 

0-04- 

Kinfauns 

- 

- 

56 

23  k 

i 46-20 

45-12 

1-08- 

Stoekholm 

- 

59 

20 

: 42-26 

41-57 

0-69- 

Upsal 

- 

- 

59 

51 

42-08 

40-94 

1-14- 

Abo 

- 

. 

60 

27 

1 40-00 

40-28 

0-28- 

Umeo 

_ 

- 

63 

50 

I 33-08 

35-96 

2-88- 

Uleo 

- 

- 

65 

30 

33-26 

34-38 

1-11- 

These  mean  temperatures  are  usually  higher  in  the  same  latitude  of 
the  old  world  than  of  the  new,  and  are  greater  in  northern  than  in 
southern  latitudes.  Thus  the  isothermal  line  of  59°  Fahr.,  traverses 
the  latitude  of  46°  in  Europe,  but  descends  to  latitude  36°  in  America. 
The  general  causes  which  disturb  the  symmetrical  distribution  of 
temperature,  are,  the  annual  variations  of  the  upper  equatorial  and 
louver  polar  currents  of  the  atmosphere,  the  difference  of  contained 
luimidity,  the  unequal  distribution  of  land  and  Avater  in  various 
countries,  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  surface  land,  and  its  relative 
licight  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  All  these  causes  have  more  or 


THE  LABOR  PARTY  IN  ENGLAND 


7671 


organizations.  Sixteen  are  miners,  7 from 
the  Independent  Labor  party,  3 from  the 
Local  Committee,  3 are  railroad  employees, 

2 engineers,  2 steel  smelters,  2 shipwrights, 
and  I of  each  of  the  following  trades:  com- 
positors, masons,  carpenters,  cotton  oper- 
tives,  iron  founders,  lithographic  printers, 
furnishing  trades,  boot  and  shoe  operatives, 
typographical  association,  shop  assistants, 
weavers,  barge  builders,  gasworkers,  navvies, 
sailors  and  firemen,  and  carpenters  and  joiners 
The  affiliations  of  three  of  the  Laborites  are 
doubtful. 

Among  the  trades  unionist  group  the  miners 
are  easily  in  the  ascendency  with  sixteen 
members.  Fourteen  of  these  are  quite  in- 
dependent of  the  Labor  caucus  and  are  per- 
haps the  best  representatives  of  actual  Im- 
perial democracy,  the  free  choice  by  the 
people  of  their  best  men  to  speak  for  them  in 
the  National  Assembly.  Unlike  many  of 
the  other  Labor  members,  the  miners’  mem- 
bers are  not  carpet-baggers  imposed  on  an 
electorate  by  the  party  machine  in  the  Eng- 
lish way,  so  incomprehensible  to  most  Amer- 
icans. Many  of  the  Labor  members  who 
live  in  London  have  been  elected  by  con- 
stituencies all  over  the  north  of  England.  Of 
the  other  trade  organizations,  the  railway 
men  and  the  printing  trades  have  three  rep- 
resentatives each;  the  engineers,  shipwrights, 
and  steel  smelters  have  two  representatives 
each ; and  sixteen  other  trades  have  one  each. 
Forty-one  members  are  furnished  and  sup- 
ported by  unions.  Several  others  have  a local 
trades  union  backing  but  are  not  the  official 
representatives  of  a single  union  nor  wholly 
maintained  by  it.  Next  there  are  seven 
members  nominated  and  supported  by  an 
organization  called  the  Independent  Labor 
Party,  which,  for  the  sake  of  brevity  and 
to  avoid  going  into  a complicated  story 
may  be  called  the  purely  Socialist  branch 
of  the  Labor  Party.  It  is  an  offshoot  of  the 
Social  Democratic  Federation  in  which  soft 
handed  Socialists  like  George  Bernard  Shaw, 
Sidney  Webb,  and  R.  B.  Cunninghame 
Graham  stir  up  their  horny  handed  fellow 
theorists.  In  this  group  is  Mr.  Keir  Hardie, 
who  was  its  only  representative  in  the  last 
house  and  who,  because  of  his  ability  and 
his  Parliamentary  experience,  is  talked  of  as 
the  leader  for  the  whole  Labor  party.  In  that 
case  a pronounced  Socialistic  line  of  conduct 
may  be  looked  for. 


The  support  of  these  various  members  is 
further  divided  on  account  of  the  Labor  Rep- 
resentation Committee.  This  is  a coalition 
of  trades  unions  and  Socialists  formed  to  se- 
cure Labor  members  for  Parliament.  At 
the  last  conference  in  1905  it  had  165  trades 
unions  and  76  trades  councils  affiliated  with 
three  large  bodies  of  Socialists  and  a total 
claimed  membership  of  900,000.  Each  trades 
council  (an  association  of  local  trades  unions) 
pays  about  $10  per  year,  and  other  organ-^ 
izations  such  as  local  trades  unions  and  social-B 
ist  societies  pay  say  $3.50  for  each  i,ooo« 
members.  These  payments  make  up  the\ 
ordinary  funds  for  the  support  of  the  Commit- 
tee. There  is  a separate  fund  for  the  support 
of  representatives  in  Parliament  made  up  of 
an  annual  contribution  of  2 cents  for  each 
M.  P.  paid  by  members  of  every  affiliated 
society.  This  sum  amounted  in  1905  to 
about  $40,000.  It  is  from  this  fund  that 
the  Committeee  will  allow  each  of  its  elected 
members  $1,000  a year  and  25  per  cent,  of  his 
election  expenses. 

At  the  last  election  the  Committee  put 
forward  fifty-one  candidates  of  whom 
twenty-nine  were  elected.  Of  this  number 
seven  represent  the  Independent  Labor 
Party  (Socialists)  and  the  rest  various  trades 
unions  which  have  put  their  nominees  in  the 
hands  of  the  Committee.  It  is  clear,  there- 
fore, as  The  Times  remarks,  that  the  finalTcIffi:^ 
as  well  as  the  electoral  strength  of  the  move- 
ment rests  upon  the  trades  unions  rather 
than  upon  the  Socialists. 

The  parliamentary  strength  and  compo- 
sition of  the  Labor  party  are  yet  indeter- 
minate. They  will  depend  to  a great  extent 
on  future  events,  and  will  probably  vary  with 
circumstances.  Only  twenty-nine  of  the 
members  are  bound  together,  and  on  sorn^ 
votes  this  may  be  all  of  their  strength.  On 
others  it  may  be  so  much  as  sixty  by  the  ] 
inclusion  of  all  possible  Labor  members  and 
some  young  Radicals  who  are  not  bound  tc 
the  Government.  Upon  questions  which 
immediately  concern  the  trades  unions  the 
party  front  will  be  most  united.  There 
seems  so  far  no  definite  platform,  or  pro- 
gramme. Amendments  to  the  Workmen’s 
Compensation  Act  so  that  compensation 
shall  be  payable  from  the  date  of  an  injury 
and,  in  the  case  of  young  people,  that  the 
amount  of  damage  for  an  injury  shall  be 
reckoned  on  prospective  not  past  earnings; 


7672 


A NEW  JvSTIIMIAN  RAILROAF) 


the  inclusion  of  all  workmen;  the  restriction 
of  insurance  companies  from  .procurinj^^  the 
discharge  of  old  or  feeble  workmen  and  a 
guarantee  against  the  employer’s  bankruptcy 

all  these  have  been  asked  for.  As  The 
Times  sharply  remarks,  in  discussing  these 
proposals,  it  is  highly  problematical  how 
these  charges  will  commend  themselves  to 
the  numerous  employers  who  grace  the  Lib- 
eral benches. 

Another  matter  of  vital  interest  to  trades 
unions  occupying  a prominent  place  on  the 
Labor  party’s  programme,  is  the  necessity 
for  some  legal  definition  of  the  position  of 
trades  unions  since  the  Taff  Vale  decision. 
This  declared  that  the  unions  as  corporations 
are  liable  for  damages  inflicted  by  strikes 
which  they  have  ordered,  flflie  unions  main- 
tain that  their  funds  are  benevolent  only, 
and  cannot  be  sequestered  for  damages. 

Other  matters  discussed  by  members  of 
the  new  party  are  measures  for  dealing  with 


the  unemi)loyed,  and,  if  the  next  winter 
brings  forth  an  army  of  distre.ss  such  as 
I)reyed  upon  London  during  that  just  passed 
the  President  of  the  Local  Government 
Hoard,  the  Rt.  Hon.  John  Burns  will  not 
have  an  enviable  time  at  the  hands  of  his 
former  associates.  Another  Socialistic  meas- 
ure, the  feeding  of  children  in  the  public 
schools  has  already  been  discussed  in 
the  present  Parliament  without  a decision. 
Some  of  the  more  advanced  Laborites  de- 
mand not  only  food  but  clothes  for  the  public 
school  children.  There  are  many  other 
measures  in  the  background,  like  old  age 
pensions  and  very  large  measures  of  electoral 
reform  and  remission  of  taxation,  which  so 
far  have  never  come  nearer  to  actualities  than 
inclusion  in  some  Labor  programmes. 

J he  Labor  party  in  England  is  now  a 
living  growth,  full  of  strength  and  vital 
promise.  But  the  fruits  of  its  labors  are  not 
even  in  the  bud. 


A NEW  ISTHMIAN  RAILROAD 

MEXICO  COMPLETING  THE  TEHUANTEPEC  ROUTE  THAT  WILL  BRING  NEW  YORK 
^1200  MILES  BY  SEA  NEARER  SAN  FRANCISCO  THAN  THE  PANAMA  ROUTE-THE 
STORY  OF  ITS  BUILDING— A LINK  IN  A GREAT  INTERNATIONAL  SYLSTEM 

BY 


EDWARD 

Mexico  is  about  to  take  a twelve- 
hundred-mile  ‘ ‘ kink  ’ ’ out  of  the  line 
of  international  commerce  which 
has  been  using  the  Panama  route.  At  the 
^sarne  time  it  will  give  the  American  trans- 
coiitinental  railroads  a tremendous  shock  by 
ojjcning  a new  short  route  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific  which  they  cannot  control.  By 
.tlic  end  of  the  year  the  new  railroad  across 
the  Isthmus  of  fl'ehuantepcc  is  to  be  opened 
to  interof:eanic  traflic  (m  a large  scale,  'khe 
railroafl  has  been  comj)leted  for  some  time 
aiifl  is  ill  cqxTation  for  l(;cal  traflic.  It  is  only 
awaiting  tlie  comjfletion  oi  its  terminal  ports 
to  b(!gin  handling  ocean  fiaiiglit.  'I'licse  ports, 
thongli  tli(;y  will  not  be  fully  comiikaed  in 
le.ss  than  twf)  or  three  years,  will  soon  be 
suflicicntly  advancefl  to  be  ns(*(l  by  vessels 
of  any  size. 


M.  CONLEY 

The  railroad,  being  600  miles  north  of  the 
Panama  railroad,  is  that  distance  nearer  the 
natural  line  of  the  world’s  east  and  west 
commerce.  It  will  brings  New  York  and 
North  Atlantic  ports  1200  miles,  and  New 
Orleans  and  Gulf  ports  1400  miles,  nearer  to 
San  Francisco,  Japan  and  China.  The  sailing 
time  from  New  York  to  Coatzacoalcos,  the 
Atlantic  terminal  port,  will  be  six  or  seven 
days,  two  days  less  than  to  Colon,  the  Atlantic 
port  of  the  Panama  railroad.  Cargo  from  a 
vessel  landing  at  Coatzacoalcos,  say  of  10,000 
tons,  can  be  aboard  another  vessel  in  the 
harbor  of  Salina  Cruz,  in  four  or  five  . days. 
In  an  emergency  the  trans-shipment  could 
be  accomj)lishcd  in  thirty-six  hours.  The 
same  freight  could  not  be  transferred  across 
the  Islhimis  of  Panama  in  less  than  three 
wc(‘ks,  possibly  longer.  At  wSalina  Cruz, 


A NEW  ISTHMIAN  RAILROAD 


7673 


the  Pacific  port,  the  vessel  is  two  days  nearer 
San  Francisco  than  it  would  be  at  Panama. 
This  serves  to  illustrate  what  the  new  route 
means  in  saving  time. 

But  perhaps  the  more  important  fact  is 
that  the  Tehuantepec  railroad  is  able  to 
handle  ocean  freight  at  all.  Can  the  Panama 
Railroad?  Under  its  old  management  Amer- 
ican transcontinental  railroads  controlled  it 
and  rendered  it  valueless  as  a competing  line. 
That  is  now  changed,  but  without  radical 


There  will  be  no  discrimination.  All  shippers 
will  be  treated  exactly  alike.  The  rate  ques- 
tion was  settled  in  Mexico  long  ago.  The 
Mexican  government  fixes  all  railroad  rates 
and,  strange  as  it  may  seem  to  American 
shippers,  the  law  is  obeyed. 

The  building  of  such  a railroad  was  unsuc- 
cessfully attempted  a great  many  times  during 
the  past  half-century,  mostly  by  Americans. 
The  Tehuantepec  route  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed in  the  United  States  in  connection 


LA^.600 


Hap  showing  prmcipal  raUraatJ^ 
Une$  Indicate  cam- 
roads.  Bries  indicate 

new  roads  to  lie 


Guatemala 


THE  RAILROADS  OF  MEXICO,  SHOWING  THE  NEW  TEHUANTEPEC  TRANS-ISTHMIAN  LINE 


X E JCA  S 


improvements  the  Panama  railroad  could 
not  possibly  handle  all  the  traffic  that  would 
naturally  go  to  it.  During  the  construction 
of  the  Canal  the  handling  of  general  freight 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  will  be  limited 
and  uncertain  at  best.  The  Tehuantepec 
railroad  has  been  completed  just  in  time  to 
relieve  the  situation.  It  will  be  able  at  all 
times  to  handle  all  the  business  that  comes 
to  it  without  delay.  It  will  be  operated 
independently  and  upon  a strictly  business 
basis  by  a man  who  knows  how  to  run  it. 


with  the  Panama  and  Nicaragua  routes. 
About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  it  was 
proposed  that  the  United  States  build  a rail-  1 
road  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  for 
international  use,  assuming  control  over  and 
guaranteeing  the  neutrality  of  a strip  of  land 
on  either  side  of  it.  Mexico  was  willing,  but 
two  treaties  failed  to  obtain  the  approval  of 
the  American  Senate  and  the  matter  was 
dropped.  In  the  70’s  a commission  was 
appointed  by  our  Government  to  report  upon 
the  feasibility  of  an  interoceanic  canal  across  i 


r 


A Nl<:w  ISTHMIAN  RAILROAI') 


7674 

the  Isthmus,  and  the  Teluiant('])ee  route  had 
strong  support  in  Congress.  Some  time  prior 
to  that  an  attempt  was  made  to  interest  the 
Government  in  a scheme  to  build  a “ship- 
railroad”  across  the  Isthmus,  which  would 
carry  vessels  bodily  on  huge  platforms  resting 
upon  parallel  tracks  across  the  narrow  neck 
of  land.  More  than  a score  of  attempts  were 
made  by  American  companies  and  individ- 
uals to  build  a railroad  as  a private  enter- 
prise, under  concessions  from  the  Mexican 
government. 

The  road  has  finally  been  built  by  Sir 
Weetman  Pearson,  the  English  contractor, 
at  the  expense  of  the  Mexican  government.  It 
is  to  be  operated  by  the  contractor  in  jiart- 
nership  with  the  Government  for  a long  term 
of  years.  Its  total  cost,  including  the  harbor 
and  port  improvements  at  its  terminals, 
which  constitute  the  chief  items,  will  be  nearly 
$25,000,000. 

The  road  is  190  miles  long,  following  the 
only  break  in  the  great  mountain  range  that 
extends  through  North,  Central,  and  South 
America,  and  the  route  is,  therefore,  com- 
paratively level.  The  chief  difficulty  in 
building  a railroad  in  the  tropics  is  to  con- 
struct it  so  that  it  will  withstand  the  torrential 
rains.  The  Tehuantepec  railroad  is  most 
substantially  built,  with  rock-ballasted  road- 
ffieavy  creosoted  ties,  heavy  rails,  and 
heavy  steel  bridges,  with  unusually  heavy 
masonry  supports.  Yet  even  with  these 
precautions  some  sections  of  the  track  have 
been  washed  out  a great  many  times.  Experi- 
ence and  experiment  have  finally  enabled  the 
builders  to  overcome  this  difficulty  sufficiently 
so  that  no  interruption  of  traffic  is  likely  to 
occur  after  the  road  begins  handling  trans- 
isthmian freight.  The  railroad  is  amply  equip- 
,ped  with  first-class  rolling  stock  to  handle  a 
great  volume  of  traffic  without  delay. 

'I'he  building  of  a harbor  at  Salina  Cruz  the 
Pacific  terminal  was  a difficult  and  costly 
undertaking,  d'here  was  only  an  open  road- 
stead and  it  was  necessary  to  make  an  artifi- 
cial rhmble  liarbor.  d'he  outer  harbor  is  being 
formed  by  twf>  breakwaters  thrown  out  like 
giant  artns  into  the  sea  and  enclosing,  save 
lor  the  entrance,  a large  ar(‘a  of  water.  The 
inner  harbor  will  be  a great  exeavatc'd  basin 
around  wlnddi  will  b(;  built  the  (’ustom  house, 
government  stores,  warehouses,  and  U'rminal 
tracks.  At  one  ef>rner  of  the  basin  will  be 
a l.'irge  tlry  (lo(d<.  ICvery  modern  facdlity 


will  be  provided  for  the  handling  of  freight 
from  vessel  to  cars  and  vice  versa. 

The  river  at  Coatzacoalcos,  the  Gulf  ter- 
minal, forms  as])lendid  inner  harbor  of  unlim- 
ited capacity.  It  was  necessary  to  remove  a 
bar  at  its  entrance;  so  two  converging  jetties 
are  being  built  seaward  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  so  as  to  scour  out  a channel  by  the 
action  of  the  river  current.  The  jetties  arc 
nearly  a mile  long.  Docks  and  warehouses, 
machinery  and  appliances  for  handling  freight, 
and  railroad  terminal  facilities  are  being  pro- 
vided on  a large  scale. 

The  railroad  will  not  have  to  wait  for  busi- 
ness when  it  is  ready  to  handle  it.  Contracts 
have  already  been  made  with  several  large 
shippers  to  carry  their  freight  across  the 
Isthmus  at  the  earliest  possible  date.  hVorn 
the  day  the  terminal  ports  are  ready  to  receive 
vessels,  the  road  will  handle  more  traffic  than 
is  now  being  handled  by  the  Panama  railroad. 
Arrangements  have  been  made  with  a number 
of  steamship  lines  for  regular  service  between 
Pacific  ports  and  Salina  Cruz,  and  between 
Coatzacoalcos  and  North  Atlantic  ports. 

The  recently  completed  Vera  Cruz  and 
Pacific  railroad,  now  owned  by  the  Mexican 
government,  connects  the  Tehuantepec  rail- 
road with  the  City  of  Mexico  and  with  Vera 
Cruz,  the  country’s  chief  seaport.  From  San 
Geronimo,  on  the  Tehuantepec  road,  the 
Pan-American  railroad  is  being  built  south- 
ward along  the  Pacific  coast  toward  the 
Guatemalan  border.  About  150  miles  of 
it  are  now  in  operation  and  it  is  hoped  to 
connect  it  with  the  railway  system  of  Guate- 
mala within  a year.  The  Pan-American  will 
be  a long  link  in  connecting  the  railroads  of 
North  and  South  America. 

Railroads  of  as  great  importance  to  Mexico, 
and  incidentally  to  us,  as  the  Tehuantepec 
road  are  being  built  in  other  parts  of  Mexico. 
Two  lines,  the  Mexican  Central  and  the 
Kansas  City,  Mexico,  and  Orient,  are  pushing 
through  the  rugged  mountains  of  western 
Mexieo  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Other  lines  to 
western  ])orts  are  ])rojected.  This  section  of 
Mexieo,  which  is  exceedingly  rich  in  natural 
resources,  has  hitherto  been  isolated.  Trans- 
])ortation  facilities  will  bring  about  its  speed}^ 
d('vel()])ment.  They  will  also  mark  the  l)e- 
gimiing  of  a new  epoch  in  the  commerce  of  the 
l\'ici(ic.  Western  and  Central  Mexico  and  the 
Middle  West  of  the  United  States  will  send 
their  ])r()ducts  by  these  new  railroads  through 


THE  NEW  ISTHMIAN  RAILROAD 


767 


Mexican  Pacific  coast  ports  to  the  Orient  and 
other  markets  of  the  world.  Mexico  is 
already  a customer  of  the  Far  East  to  a 
limited  extent  and  with  rail  communication 
between  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  interior 
of  the  country  that  trade  will  grow.  The 
coastwise  trade  of  the  Pacific  side  of  the 
Americas  will  be  increased  considerably.  In 
effect,  over  2,000  miles  of  new  coast  line,  with 
half  a dozen  important  ports,  are  about  to  be 
added  to  the  commercial  map  of  the  Pacific. 

Sixty-seven  miles  of  track  will  connect  the 
Guadalajara  branch  of  the  Mexican  Central 
Railroad  with  the  Pacific  coast  port  of  Man- 
zanillo. The  road  is  completed  as  far  as 
Tuxpan  and  a line  extends  inland  from  Man- 
zanillo to  Colima.  The  descent  from  Tuxpan 
to  Colima  is  through  exceedingly  rough  moun- 
tains and  the  road  between  these  two  points 
will  be  a succession  of  tunnels,  bridges,  and 
cuts  through  solid  rock.  It  is  expected  that 
it  will  be  finished  in  less  than  two  years.  The 
Mexican  government  is  making  extensive 
harbor  and  port  improvements  at  Manzanillo 
in  anticipation  of  its  completion.  Manzanillo 
is  due  west  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  It  is  600 
miles  distant  by  rail  and  will  be  the  natural 
Pacific  port  for  the  capital.  It  is  about  200 
miles  distant  from  Guadalajara,  the  second 
largest  city  in  the  republic,  an.d  will  give  that 
city  an  outlet  which  will  be  of  inestimable 
advantage  to  it.  The  Guadalajara-Manzanillo 
branch  of  the  Mexican  Central  and  the 
Tampico  branch  of  the  same  road  will  make 
an  almost  direct  transcontinental  line,  less 
than  1,000  miles  in  length,  from  Tampico  to 
Manzanillo.  This  road  has  a branch  running 
southward  from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  the 
• Balsas  river,  which  it  expects  to  complete 
to  the  Pacific  port  of  Acapulco  as  soon  as  it 
finishes  its  Manzanillo  extension. 

The  Kansas  City,  Mexico  and  Orient  rail- 
road is  building  a direct  line  from  Kansas 
City  to  Topolobampo,  just  at  the  end  of  the 
Bay  of  Lower  California.  Work  is  progress- 
ing simultaneously  on  different  sections  of 
this  line.  Some  parts  of  it  are  already  in 
operation.  It  will  be  finished  very  soon  after 
the  completion  of  the  Mexican  Central’s  line 
to  Manzanillo.  This  road  will  be  of  the 
' greatest  advantage  to  our  Middle  West.  It 
will  give  Kansas  City  an  outlet  to  the  Pacific 
[ nearly  700  miles  shorter  than  the  present 
} route  to  San  Francisco.  That  is  the  distance 
i from  Kansas  City  to  Topolobampo  by  this 


new  line  is  only  a little  more  than  half  the 
distance  by  rail  to  San  Francisco.  But  more 
important  than  this  is  the  fact  that  it  will  give 
Kansas  City  and  all  the  territory  tributary  to 
it  a competing  line  that  will  compete.  It 
will  remove  the  Middle  West  from  the  power 
of  American  transcontinental  lines  and  enable 
it  to  build  up  a trade  with  the  Orient  and 
with  the  west  coast  of  North  and  South 
America.  One  of  the  commissions  appointed 
by  the  American  Government  to  report  upon 
an  isthmian  canal  gave  as  its  opinion  that 
just  such  a railroad  as  this  would  be  of  more 
value  to  the  United  States  than  an  inter.- 
oceanic  canal. 

The  Southern  Pacific  railroad,  which  has 
a branch  from  its  main  line  through  Nogales 
to  Guaymas,  on  the  Bay  of  Lower  California, 
has  recently  obtained  a concession  from  the 
Mexican  Government  to  extend  its  line  south- 
ward along  the  coast,  through  the  States  of 
Sonora  and  Sinaloa,  to  the  port  of  Mazatlan 
and  thence  to  Guadalajara.  The  Mexican 
International,  which  is  now  one  of  the  national 
lines  of  Mexico,  controlled  by  the  Govern- 
ment, holds  a concession  for  a line  from 
Durango  to  Mazatlan.  And  there  are  other 
lines  making  in  all  an  addition  of  2,000  miles 
to  the  Mexican  system  of  communication. 

A glance  at  the  accompanying  map  wi]!-' 
show  that  all  these  2000  miles  of  newrrail- 
roads  will  not  only  open  up  new  sections  of 
country  to  development  and  new  avenues  for 
commerce;  they  will  join  Mexico’s  10,000 
miles  of  separate  railways  into  a system. 
They  will  not  only  connect  the  capital  of  the 
country  with  every  section  it;  they  will  give 
each  important  city  of  the  republic  fairly 
direct  connection  with  every  other  important 
city.  They  will  perform  the  same  service 
for  border  points,  effecting  a great  saving  of- 
time  and  distance  between  American  and 
Mexican  cities.  Within  the  next  five  years 
Mexico  will  have  a network  of  railroads,  that, 
with  the  same  amount  of  mileage,  could 
hardly  be  improved  upon.  They  will  have 
cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $1,000,000,000  of 
which  nearly  $400,000,000  will  be  American 
capital.  American  interests  will  own  more 
than  half  of  them;  nearly  $400,000,000  will 
have  been  spent  by  the  Mexican  Government, 
in  subventions,  purchase  price  and  cost  of 
construction;  and  nearly  $200,000,000  of 
native  and  other  capital  than  American  will 
have  been  invested. 


NATHANIEL  SOUTHGATE  SHALER 

BY 

LANGDON  WARNER 


THERE  recently  died  in  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  much  to  the  saddening 
of  Harvard  University  and  of  an  un- 
commonly .wide  circle,  a man  whose  personal- 
ity will  always  stand  out  strong  in  the  lives  of 
those  that  had  the  good  fortune  to  know 
him — an  unforgettable,  many-sided,  inspir- 
ing man.  Professor  Nathaniel  Southgate 
Shaler,  Dean  of  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  of  Harvard  University. 

His  father  was  a Harvard  man  of  the  class 
of  1827  who  settled,  as  a physician,  first  in 
Jamaica,  whither  the  family  had  come  from 
England;  but  he  soon  afterward  went  to 
Kentucky  where  his  son  was  born  in  1841,  on 
a plantation  outside  the  town  of  Newport. 
Here  he  lived  until  he  was  eighteen,  attending 
for  a little  while  the  nearby  school,  but  for  the 
most  part  learning  from  his  old  tutor,  the 
German  scientist,  Escher.  He  himself  told 
how,  when  young,  he  was  much  alone,  roam- 
'll^-the  eotmtryside  with  a dog  and  a musket. 
Often  a little  negro  of  his  own  age  would  go 
with  him  to  carry  the  powder-flask  and  bullet- 
bag.  With  Herr  Escher  he  read  every  book 
that  his  father’s  library  afforded,  German  and 
English.  He  studied  the  classics  and  dis- 
cussed philosophy  with  his  tutor,  who  helped 
him  to  classify  the  collections  of  rocks,  fossils, 
birds’  eggs,  and  flora,  which  he  brought  home 
from  the  tramps  and  riding  trips  that  took 
him  over  four  counties  and  sometimes  across 
the  state  border. 

When  he  was  eighteen,  in  the  year  1859, 
he  was  sent  to  Harvard  where  he  enrolled  in 
the  Lawrence  vScientific  vSehool,  and  studied 
biology  and  other  natural  sciences  under 
Professor  Agassiz.  With  his  degree  in  1862, 
he  hurried  to  Kentucky  before  Commence- 
ment Day  to  take  a ca])tain’s  commission  in 
a light  battery,  the  ['fifth  Kentucky  of  the 
Union  Army,  fi'his  soon  came  to  be  known 
as  “vSlialer’s  Pattery  ” and  gave  .a  good 
account  of  itself  thr{)Ugh  two  years  ()f  active 
service.  Some  of  us,  his  pupils,  would  give 
much  to  have  seen  the  young  Captain  heading 
his  battery  against  13ragg,  or  helping  to  cut 


off  Morgan  when  he  tried  to  cross  over  into 
Ohio.  We  know  that  he  was  a good  officer 
and  no  slack  disciplinarian,  but  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  some  of  his  manoeuvres  were  not  to 
be  found  in  the  tactical  treatises.  On  one 
occasion  at  least,  he  chose  to  regard  his  guns 
as  a troop  of  horse,  and  used  them  as  such 
against  a dumbfounded  enemy. 

In  1864  Captain  Shaler’s  health  broke 
down  from  repeated  attacks  of  camp-fever 
and  from  exposure.  His  usefulness  in  the 
army  had  come  to  an  end.  He  resigned  his 
commission  and  went  back  to  Cambridge  as 
instructor  in  Paleontology.  Five  years  later 
when  he  was  twenty-eight  years  old  he  was 
appointed  a full  professor. 

As  we  of  his  later  classes  knew  the  Dean,  he 
was  tall  and  lank,  with  white  hair  standing 
stiffly  erect  from  his  high  forehead.  As  the 
chapel  bell  started  in  the  morning,  his  door 
would  burst  open  and  he  would  swing  down 
the  path,  across  a forbidden  border  of  grass, 
and  into  the  side  door  of  the  chapel.  Here 
he  sat  erect  under  the  preacher’s  right  hand 
till  the  short  service  was  over.  At  the  bene- 
diction, he  about-faced,  turned  into  the  main 
aisle  and  marched,  with  his  black  felt  hat 
grasped  to  his  breast,  military  fashion,  out  into 
the  sun. 

Man  was  to  him  the  most  delightful  of  all 
studies.  Perhaps  it  should  be  said  that  he 
was  a psychologist  before  he  was  a geologist. 
All  science  was  written  for  him  in  terms  of 
humanity,  and  no  theory  was  too  abstract, 
no  law  of  nature  too  formal  for  him  to  make  it 
instantly  human.  He  had  the  great  quality 
of  being  as  old  or  as  young  as  his  companions, 
whether  they  were  children,  or  boys,  or  men. 

When  Darwin  first  propounded  the  theor}^ 
of  evolution,  he  eagerly  grasped  the  truth,  and 
cham])ioncd  it  even  against  the  teachings  of 
his  master  Agassiz,  whom  he  greatly  revered. 
A young  man  of  the  new  school  of  scientists 
souglit  to  trick  him  into  an  inconsistency,  and 
pointed  out  that  evolution  must  unsettle  the 
l)cliefs  of  a man  who  accepted  Christianity. 
Professor  Shaler  turned  on  him  and  said: 


505 


Railroad^  Cana\  and  Steamboat  Statistics. 

There  is  one  aspect  of  railroad  accidents  tliat  is  very  surprising,  and  which 
should  be  stated  as  a fcr  contra.  When  we  take  into  account  the  immense  num- 
ber of  persons  who  travel  by  railroad,  it  turns  out  that,  when  we  come  to  balance 
the  accidents  on  railways,  with  those  happening  to  an  equal  number  of  persons 
by  the  old  methods  of  transport,  the  advantage  is  entirely  on  the  side  of  rail- 
roads. Thus,  in  the  French  post  system,  there  occured  in  the  period  from  1846 
to  1856,  accidents  causing  20  deaths  and  238  wounded  for  7,109,276  passengers 
carried,  giving  one  to  every  355,463 — that  is,  nearly  seven  times  as  many  deaths 
as  occur  in  an  equal  number  by  railroad,  even  according  to  the  reckless  Ameri- 
can system.  According  to  Dr.  Lardner’s  computations,  366,036,923  passengers 
must  travel  one  mile  to  cause  the  death  of  one  railroad  employee.  44ie  chances 
of  a person’s  meeting  bodily  injury  in  traveling  one  mile  of  railroad,  are  8,512,486 
to  one.  And  the  chances  of  one’s  meeting  with  a fatal  accident  in  traveling  one 
mile  of  railroad,  are  more  than  sixty-five  million  to  one  ! What  a consolation 
for  a cracked  cranium  or  a fractured  femur  ! 


COST  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  RAILROADS. 

A comparison  of  the  reports,  and  an  examination  into  the  details,  of  the  man- 
agement of  railways  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  disclose  the  following  com- 
parisons : — 


Annual  expense  of  American  railways $120,000,000 

“ “ English  rail  wavs,  same  mileage 80,000,000 


Annual  difference $40,000,000 

Average  annual  expense  for  maintenance  of  way  of  American  lines. . $83,000,000 

“ “ of  English  lines,  same  mileage 12,500,000 

Annual  difference $20,500,000 

Average  annual  cost  of  fuel  for  American  lines $18,000,000 

“ “ “ English  lines,  same  mileage 7,500,000 


Annual  difference $10,500,000 

Total  annual  expenses  of  American  railways $171,000,000 

“ “ English  “ 100,000,000 


Total  annual  difference. 


$71,000,000 


In  regard  to  the  net  results  and  financial  profits  of  administration,  the  contrast 
between  the  two  systems  is  remarkable  : — 


England,  (1856) 

France,  (1855) 

New  York,  (1855)  . . . . 
Massachusetts.  (1855).. 
“ (1856).. 


Eeceipts  per 

Expenses  per 

Percentage 
of  expenses 

mile  run. 

mile  run. 

on  receipts. 

$1  44: 

«^0  63f 

4 4 

2 03 

0 87i 

43 

1 76 

1 00 

57 

1 69 

1 05 

62 

1 83 

1 08 

59 

The  expenses  for  “ maintenance  of  way,  engines,  and  working,”  are  thus 
stated  : — 

Per  cent  of  Per  cent  of 
total  expenses,  gross  receipts. 

New  York  railroads 70^  40.1 

Western  “ 80  43.8 

English  railways,  (1856) 57  25.3 

French  “ (1855) ' 48  20.7 


JiCiilroad^  Carial^  and  Steamhoaf  Sf.afisfirs. 

Some  of  tlic  expenses  of  American  railways  arc  necessarily  I.iglier  than  those 
of  the  Knjrlisli.  We  must  pay  more  for  fuel  ; still  mon;  disproportionately  (or 
labor  and  service,  the  wa-es  of  day  laborers  here  bcin-  -a  least  doable  that  in 
l^lnrrland.  ^I’he  price  of  land,  however,  is  frreater  there.  The  road-beds  in  the 
Northern  States  are  annually  upheaved  by  frost,  and  the  snows  of  winter, 
alternating^  with  the  extreme  heats  of  summer,  affect  the  wooden  subsiructures. 
Our  extraordinary  freshets  in  the  spring  inflict  immense  damage  upon  the  roads.’ 
^riie  cost  of  engines  and  cars  is  greater  ; and  the  mechanical  repair  of  both  is 
made  at  a greater  price. 

Onr  roads  arc  not  unfrcrpiently  built  through  fresh-broken  wildernesses  ; and, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten,  are  constructed  and  maintained,  less  with  an  idea  to 
their  profdablencss,  as  investments,  than  for  the  incidental  advantages  they  con- 
fer on  the  neighboring  country  and  the  terminal  cities  and  villages. 


C U B A N R A I L ROADS. 

The  Nay  of  Havana  and  Matanzas  Hail  way  was  recently  opened  with  great 
ceremony  to  Guanabaco.  Ilis  Excellency,  the  Captain-General,  and  suite  were 
imesent,  and  also  the  Eight  Rev.,  the  Bishop  of  the  Diocese.  As  on  all  public 
occasion  in  Cuba,  there  was  a great  display  of  the  military.  The  steam  ferry- 
boats connected  with  the  line,  which  ply  from  this  city  to  Regia,  were  gaily 
decorated  with  flags  and  streamers,  as  was  also  the  railroad  depot  at  Regia— nor 
could  I avoid  observing  the  stars  and  stripes  floating  nobly  among  the  rest  from 
the  pretty  ship  Riga,  of  Marblehead,  which  was  at  her  berth  alongside  the  com- 
pany’s wharf. 

On  the  lilh  August,  Ilis  Excellency,  the  Captain-General,  accompanied  by 
General  Manzano,  Segundo  Cabo,  Brigadiers  Echavarria,  the  political  Governor 
of  this  city,  the  Director  of  Public  Works,  Don  Domingo,  and  Don  Miguel 
Aldumer,  and  several  other  gentlemen,  embarked  in  a special  train  of  the  Havana 
and  Gaines  Railway  to  inspect  a new  iron  bridge  that  has  been  erected  for  the 
purpose  of  the  railway  over  the  River  Almendares.  The  bridge  is  upwards  of 
seventy  feet  in  length,  and  is  a light  and  elegant  yet  strong  structure. 

The  new  railroad  depot,  for  the  railway  now  building  between  Regia  and 
Matanzas,  is  an  elegant  gothic  building,  nearly  300  feet  in  length,  and  about  GO 
feet  in  breadth.  The  painted  doors  and  windows  are  all  of  solid  mahogany. 
These  two  new  splendid  locomotives,  called  “ the  Marquis  de  la  Habana  ” and 
“ Jacinto  G.  Laninaga,”  were  built  at  Patterson,  New  Jersey,  and  each  weighs 
eighteen  tons.  There  is  a third  locomotive,  the  “ Edward  Fesser,”  built  at 
Philadelphia,  employed  on  the  line.  The  first-class  passenger  cars,  are  possessed 
of  admirable  ventilation  and  general  comfort  and  elegance.  The  cars  were  built 
in  Jersey  City.  The  rails  possess  uncommon  strength,  weighing  no  less  than  68 
pounds  to  the  yard.  This  railway  will  prove  of  immense  public  benefit  ; at  pres- 
ent, six  or  seven  hours  are  occupied  in  going  by  a circuitous  route,  change  of 
cars,  <fcc.,  to  Matanzas.  By  the  new  line,  which  is  direct  to  Matanzas,  a man 
will  be  able  to  take  an  early  train  and  be  in  IMatanzas  in  good  time  for  breakfast, 
remain  there  through  the  day,  and  return  to  ihis  city  in  the  evening. 


TUB  PANAMA  BAlLROAD. 


39 


February  Zrd^  1868. 

BALDWIN  LATHAM,  President,  in  the  Chair. 
TPIE  PANAMA  KAILKOAD. 

By  Dr.  Cullen. 

As  the  Panama  Railroad  Company’s  contract  or  charter  was 
based  upon  some  previous  privileges  or  concessions  that  had 
lapsed  from  non-fulfilment  of  their  conditions,  a notice  of  them 
will  serve  to  introduce  it. 

1836,  May  29.  A privilege  for  a canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  was  granted  to  Matthew  Klein,  as  representative  of  the 
Franco-Grenadian  Company,  of  which  M.  Salomons,  of  Marti- 
nique and  Paris,  was  the  promoter.  On  the  6th  of  June,  some 
modifications  of  the  same  were  passed  by  the  Congress  of  New 
Granada.^ 

1839,  May  30.  A renewal  of  the  above  was  granted  to  M. 
Alphonse  Morel,  the  representative  of  the  Franco-Grenadian 
Company.  Although  these  privileges  became  null  and  void,  the 
concessionaires  induced  Louis  Philippe  and  Guizot  to  send  out 
M.  Napoleon  Garella  and  M.  de  Courtines,  by  whom  a detailed 
and  admirable  survey  was  made  in  1843  and  1844.  M.  Morel, 
whom  the  author  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting  at  Panama,  had 
previously  made  a minute  examination  of  the  ground,  and  found 
a very  low  summit  level.  His  assertion  was,  however,  always 
doubted  until  very  lately,  when  it  was  found  that  there  is,  not 
far  from  the  summit  of  the  railroad  line,  a summit  level  of  only 
a few  feet  greater  elevation  than  that  which  he  had  assigned 
to  it.  Count  de  Secqueville,  who  had  been  one  of  the  directors 
of  the  company,  assured  the  author,  in  Paris,  that  Guizot  entered 
into  the  project  of  a canal  with  enthusiasm. 

1847.  A contract  for  a railroad  was  concluded  at  Bogota 
between  Juan  de  Francisco  Martin  and  Matthew  Klein.  The 
former  was  specially  authorised  by  the  executive  power ; the 

* Recopilacion  Granadina,”  Bogota,  Imprenta  del  Gobierno,  1845. 


40 


TITE  PANAMA  PAILPOAP. 


latter  was  agent  of  the  Pannina  Company  of  Paris.  Tlic  follow- 
ing were  the  directors  of  the  (•oni])any  : 1\I.  dean  Louis  i\larie 
Eugene  Durien,  chief  of  a section  in  the  I )c])artnient  of  tin*  In- 
terior; Yisconnt  Francois  Ernest  (Jhahrol  de  Cliameaiu*;  ,Je;ui 
Edouard  Caillard,  Administrator  ()F  the  j\Iessagci’ies  (j}en(h’ah‘s  ; 
Lientenant-Colonel  Alexandre  do  Jlellegarde,  .laccnies  (h)ur- 
tines,  civil  engineer;  Eran^*ois  Thierry  Chevalier;  Cli.  Veyret ; 
Eloi  Dumont ; Silvaine  Jaccpies  Jose])h  doly  lilazon  de  Sahla ; 
Augustin  tJean  Salomons ; Paron  Jean  Jlenri  .lose])h  de  Lagos; 
William  Henry  Ihiinhridge,  hanker;  and  Sir  »J.  Cam])l)ell,  vice- 
president  of  the  Oriental  Steam  Company,  dune  (I.  The  above 
contract  was  approved  hy  a decree  of  Congress,  duiui  8.  It 
was  signed  hy  T.  Cipriano  do  Mosquera,  then  President,  •'md 
M.  M.  Mallarino,  the  Secretary  for  Foreign  Kelations  and 
Internal  Improvements. 

The  Panama  Company,  of  Paris,  having  failed  to  make  the 
pecuniary  deposit  required  as  a guarantee  for  the  com])letIon  of 
the  works,  the  above  grant,  by  its  terms,  became  forfeited,  and 
was  transferred  to  the  Panama  llailroad  Company.  Klein’s 
concession  was  for  ninety-nine  years. 

1848,  December  28.  A contract  was  concluded,  in  Washing- 
ton, between  General  Pedro  Alcantara  IleiTan,  Minister  of  the 
Eepublic  of  New  Granada,  and  William  Henry  Aspinwall, 
John  Lloyd  Stephens,  and  Henry  Chauncey,  of  New  York,  con- 
ceding to  the  latter  parties  a privilege  for  constructing  a railroad 
(camino  de  liierro)  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  a gi’ant  of 
all  necessary  lands,  with  250,000  acres  in  addition.* 

1849,  June  12.  The  executive  power  was  authorised  by  a 
legislative  decree  of  the  Congress  of  New  Granada  to  amplify 
and  modify  the  above. 

1850,  By  virtue  of  the  above  authority,  a new  contract  was 
concluded  between  Victoriano  de  D.  Paredes,  the  Secretary  for 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  J.  Lloyd  Stephens,!  vice-president  of  the 
Panama  Railroad  Company,  on  the  16th  of  April,  approved  by 
Congress  on  the  29th  of  May,  and  signed  by  Jose  Hilario  Lopez, 
the  President,  and  Paredes,  at  Bogota,  on  the  4th  of  June.! 

King’s  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Report  26,  2nd  Session, 
30th  Congress,  U.S.,  Jan.  16,  1849. 

f Having  arrived  in  Panama  from  Darien  in  Pebruary,  1850,  just  before 
Mr.  Stephens  sailed  in  the  Pacific  steamer  for  Buenaventura  en  route  for 
Bogota,  to  apply  for  this  contract,  the  author  liad  the  pleasure  of  taking  leave 
of  him  on  his  departure.  Being  unable  to  proceed  to  Bogota  himself  at  that 
time,  he  forwarded,  thro\igh  General  Daniel  Ploreiice  O’Leary,  then  British 
Charge  d’Affaircs  at  Bogota,  petitions  to  Congress  for  a privilege  for  a canal 
from  Caledonia  Bay  to  the  river  Savana,  and  for  authority  to  introduce  foreign 
labourers  and  miners  into  the  republic. 

I J’anama  Railroad  Contract,  Lambert  and  Lane,  69,  Wall-street,  New 
York. 


THE  PANAMA  PAILEOAD. 


41 


Among  the  concessions  by  the  terms  of  this  contract  was  one 
guaranteeing  that  all  public  lands  lying  on  the  line  of  road  were 
to  be  used  gratuitously  by  the  company ; also  a gift  of  250,000 
acres  of  land  to  be  selected  by  the  grantees  from  any  public  lands 
on  the  Isthmus.  Two  ports — one  on  the  Atlantic  and  the  other 
on  the  Pacific — were  to  be  free  ports  ; and  the  privilege  was 
granted  of  establishing  such  tolls  as  the  company  might  think 
proper.  The  contract  was  to  continue  in  force  for  forty-nine 
years,  subject  to  the  right  of  New  Granada  to  take  possession  of 
the  road,  at  the  expiration  of  twenty  years  after  its  completion, 
on  payment  of  five  millions  of  dollars ; at  the  expiration  of  thirty 
years  on  payment  of  four  millions  ; and  at  the  expiration  of  forty 
years  on  payment  of  two  millions.*  Three  per  cent,  was  to  be 
paid  to  the  New  Granada  Government  upon  all  dividends  de- 
clared. The  entire  work  was  to  be  completed  within  eight  years, 
and  a sum  of  120,000  dollars  was  to  be  deposited  at  its  com- 
mencement as  security  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  contract,  but  to 
be  refunded,  with  interest,  on  the  completion  of  the  road  within 
the  given  time.”! 

A charter  was  then  granted  by  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of 
New  York  for  the  formation  of  a stock  company,  under  which 
one  million  dollars  of  stock  were  taken — the  original  grantees 
having  previously  transferred  their  contract  into  the  hands  of 
this  Company. 

Early  in  1849,  Colonel  Hughes,  of  the  United  States’  Topo- 
graphical Engineers,  was  sent  to  survey  the  line,  and  another 
summit  gap  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Baldwin,  37  ft.  lower  than 
that  previously  established  by  him. 

Early  in  the  same  year,  1849,  a contract  was  entered  into  with 
G.  M.  Totten  and  J.  C.  Trautwine,  who  had  a short  time  before 
been  engaged  upon  the  Dique  Canal  connecting  the  Magdalena 
Kiver  with  the  Caribbean  Sea  at  Carthagena.  Soon  after,  at 
their  own  request,  they  were  released  from  their  obligations  as 
contractors,  and  retained  as  engineers,  the  company  having  de- 
termined to  take  charge  of  the  construction  themselves. 

The  character  of  the  country  through  which  the  line  for  the 
road  had  been  carried  was  such  as  might  well  have  made  the 

* This  charter  was,  however,  renewed  for  500  years,  from  1875,  by  tlie 
President,  on  the  5th  of  July,  1867  ; and,  it  is  said,  the  renewal  was  approved 
of  by  Congress  on  the  16th  of  August,  1867,  by  a majority  of  one.  In  consi- 
deration of  this  extension  of  their  lease,  tlie  company  paid  200,000/.  in  gold, 
and  engaged  to  pay  the  Government  of  Colombia  50,000/.  per  annum,  and  to 
run  the  pier  at  Panama  so  far  out  into  the  bay  that  ships  of  the  greatest 
draught  of  water  may  lie  alongside  it. 

f Otis,  P.  N.,  Esq.,  M.D.  “ Panama  Railroad  Illustrated.”  Sampson 
Low,  1862.  This  very  interesting  book  contains  a great  number  of  views, 
and  a large  fund  of  accurate  information. 


42 


THE  PANAMA  HAILROAP. 


hardiest  projectors  sliriiik  from  attem])tiii^  its  construction. 
The  first  thirteen  miles,  beginning  at  Navy  Ihiy,  ledtlirongh  the 
Mindi  Swamp — a deep  morass,  covered  witli  tlie  densest  jungle, 
reeking  with  malaria,  and  abounding  with  almost  every  species 
of  wild  beasts,  noxious  reptiles,  and  venomous  insects  known  in 
the  tropics.  For  the  first  8i  of  these  Id  miles  the  swamp  w.as  so 
deep  that  it  had  to  be  piled  and  then  filled  in  with  earth.  Farther 
on,  though  some  of  the  land  was  so  fair  and  beautiful  that  the 
natives  called  it  Paraiso,  the  greater  part  of  the  line  was  through 
a rugged,  broken  country,  along  steep  hill-sides,  over  wild 
chasms  and  deep  ravines,  spanning  turbulent  rivers  and  furious 
mountain  torrents,  until  the  summit  ridge  was  surmounted,  when 
it  descended  alu'uptly  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 

In  iSiay,  1850,  they  commenced  clearing  part  of  the  island  of 
Manzanillo,'^  Avhich  is  7000  ft.  in  extreme  length,  and  5800 
in  extreme  width,  and  has  an  area  of  1)50  acres,  or  little  more 
than  one  square  mile.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  great 
number  of  manchineel  trees  {IJippomane  mancinella,  Euplior- 
biacese)  which  groAV  on  it.  In  clearing  a way  for  the  railroad, 
some  of  the  labourers  suffered  severely  from  conjunctivitis,  and 
were  nearly  blind  for  a day,  in  consequence  of  the  juice  of  one 
of  those  trees  getting  into  their  eyes.  The  island  is  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  a frith  700  ft.  in  width,  and  10  ft.  in  its 
greatest  depth.  This  frith  was  afterwards  crossed  by  a cause- 
way, built  of  piles  and  cribwork,  which  were  soon  replaced  by 
stone  and  earth. 

Manzanillo  was  then  a virgin  swamp,  covered  with  an  impe- 
netrable thicket  of  mangroves,  and  interlaced  with  immense 
vines  and  thorny  shrubs.  In  the  black  slimy  mud  of  its  surface 
alligators  and  other  reptiles  abounded,  while  the  air  was  laden 
v/itii  pestilential  vapours  and  swarming  with  sand-flies  and  mos- 
quitoes. Kesidence  on  the  island  was  impossible,  so  that  the 
party  took  up  their  quarters  in  an  old  brig  until  part  of  it  was 
cleared.  In  July,  Mr.  Trautwine  arrived  with  several  assistant 
engineers  and  a surgeon.  Dr.  Totten,  brother  of  the  Colonel. 
Soon  afterwards  about  fifty  Irishmen  arrived  from  New  Orleans, 
to  reinforce  the  handful  of  men  that  had  commenced  the  work. 
On  the  1st  of  October,  1861,  a train  of  cars,  drawn  by  a loco- 
motive, passed  over  the  road  as  far  as  Gatun.  In  the  following 
month  two  large  steam-ships,  the  Georgia  and  Philadelphia^  with 
passengers  from  the  United  States,  en  route  for  California,  put 
into  Navy  Bay,  from  whence  the  passengers  were  conveyed  on 
tlie  railroad  to  Gatun. 

Oil  the  2nd  of  February,  1852,  the  settlement  at  Navy  Bay 

Manzanillo  Island  was  ceded  in  perpetuity  to  the  Panama  llailroad  Com- 
pany by  the  Congress  of  New  Granada,  in  1853. 


THE  PANAMA  BAILROAD. 


43 


was  formally  inaugurated  as  a city  by  Don  Victoriano  Paredes, 
and  named  Aspinwallby  the  Americans,  and  Colon  (Columbus) 
by  tlie  Granadians.  By  March  the  road  was  completed  to  a 
station  on  the  Chagres,  called  Bohio  Soldado,  8 miles  beyond 
Gatun,  and  passenger  trains  ran  in  connexion  with  every 
steamer.  By  the  6th  of  July  it  was  pushed  on  to  Barbacoas,* 
where  its  course  was  intersected  by  the  Chagres  river,  making  a 
total  distance  from  Aspinwall  of  23  miles.  At  this  time  an 
agreement  was  entered  into  with  Mr.  Story  to  complete  the 
work.  The  death  of  the  lamented  president  of  the  company, 
Mr.  J.  L.  Stephens,  also  took  place  at  this  time. 

At  Barbacoas  the  Chagres  is  about  300  ft.  in  width,  flowing 
through  a deep  and  rocky  channel,  and  subjeet  to  sudden 
freshets,  often  rising  40  ft.  in  a single  night ; so  that,  when  the 
bridge  was  nearly  completed,  one  span  of  it  was  swept  away, 
causing  much  delay  and  expense.  By  January,  1854,  the 
summit  ridge  was  reached,  distant  from  the  Atlantic  terminus 
37|-  miles,  and  10^  miles  from  Panama.  Simultaneously  with 
the  operations  towards  the  Pacific  the  p’oad  was  pushed,  under 
the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Young,  from  Panama  over  the  plains 
of  Panama,  through  the  swamps  of  Corrisal  and  Correndeu,  and 
up  the  valley  of  the  Eio  Grande,  to  meet  the  advancing  work 
from  the  Atlantic  side;  and  on  the  27th  of  January,  1855,  at 
midnight,  in  darkness  and  rain,  the  last  rail  was  laid,  and  on  the 
following  day  a locomotive  passed  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

The  entire  length  of  the  road  was  47  miles  3020  ft.,  with  a 
maximum  grade  of  60  ft.  to-  the  mile.  The  summit  grade 
was  258YVoft.  above  the  assumed  grade  at  the  Atlantic,  and 
242i^  ft.  above  the  assumed  grade  at  the  Pacific  terminus, 
being  263x^0  fh  above  the  mean  tide  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
summit  ridge  287  ft.  above  the  same  level. 

A pier,  450  ft.  long,  was  constructed  in  the  Bay  of  Panama, 
to  the  end  of  which  freight  cars  were  run  to  receive  cargoes  from 
lighters,  or  vessels  lying  alongside,  and  deliver  the  same  on 
board  vessels  at  Aspinwall.  The  lighters,  which  used  to  load 
and  discharge  vessels  whose  draught  of  water  prevented  them 
coming  to  the  pier,  were  soon  superseded  by  the  Company’s 
iron  launches  of  160  tons  each.  These  launches  are  towed  by 
a powerful  steam-tug.  The  charge  for  lighterage  is  1^  dollar 
per  ton.  On  the  completion  of  the  road,  Taboga  and  three  other 
islands  in  the  bay,  affording  good  anchorage,  and  well  supplied 
with  springs  of  water,  were  purchased  by  the  Company,  The 
line  is  single ; but  there  is  a double  line  of  rails  at  Gatun,  near 

* Barbacoas  signifies  a sort  of  suspension-bridge  made  of  bejucos,  or  bush- 
ropes. 


44 


THE  PANAMA  BAILPOAD. 


Barbacoas,  at  Matacliin,  and  the  fSiimmit.  AVood  is  used  for 
fuel. 

Commencing  at  As])in\va]l,*  in  lat.  0°  21'  2d"  N.  and  long. 
79°  53'  52"  W.j  the  road  skirts  the  island  of  Manzanillo  for  J of 
a mile,  crosses  to  tlic  mainland,  then  follows  the  shores  of  Navy 
Bay,  till  it  reaches  the  little  river  Mindec,  from  wIkmicc  it  con- 
tinues to  tlic  Ohagres,  along  the  cast  baidc  of  which  it  runs  as 
far  as  Barbacoas.  Tlicre  it  crosses  the  river  by  a wrought-iron 
bridge,  (125  ft.  in  length,  18  broad,  and  45  above  the  surface  of 
the  water.  From  the  bridge  it  follows  the  left,  or  west,  baidv  of 
the  Chagres  to  the  mouth  of  the  ()bis])o,t  and  then  follows  the 
valley  of  this  stream  to  its  head  in  the  summit  ridge,  dT  J miles 
from  the  Atlantic,  and  10]  miles  from  the  Bacitic  terminus. 
Passing  the  summit  ridge,  l)y  a cut  of  a mile  in  length  and 
24  ft.  in  de])th,  it  strikes  the  head-waters  of  the  l^io  (drande. 
Following  the  left  bank  of  this  stream,  and  descending  by  a 
grade  of  bO  ft.  to  the  mile  for  four  miles,  the  line  crosses  the 
rivers  Pedro,  Aliguel,  Caiinitillo,  and  Cardenas,  near  their  en- 
trance into  tlie  Bio  Crande.  Thence  it  stretches  across  the 
savanas  of  the  Corrisal  and  the  swamps  of  Corrcndcu,  and 
cutting  through  a S[)ur  of  Mount  Ancon,  reaches  the  Pacific  at 
Phiya  Prieta,  the  northern  suburb  of  Panama.  The  tei’ininus 
there  is  in  lat.  8°  57'  20"  N.,  long.  79°  31'  40"  AA^  It  is,  there- 
fore, only  33  nautical,  or  38^  English,  miles,  8.  42°  E.,  or  8.E. 
J 8.  of  Aspinwall,  although,  as  stated  above,  the  length  of  the 
railroad  is  47  miles  3020  ft. 


Distances  and  Levels. 

Miles. 

Feet  above 
mid- tide  of  the 
Atlantic. 

Aspinwall 

3-75 

Monkey  Hill 

. 1 1200ft. 

13-44 

Mindi  Plains 

. 2 2—7 

6-23 

Gatuii  Station  ..... 

. ' 6 590 

18-11 

Tiger  Hill  (a  quarry  here) 

. 9 910 

22-69 

Lion  Hill  Station  .... 

. 10  3400 

21-10 

Ahorca  Lagartof  (River  Juan  Gallegos) 

. 12  4400 

26-27 

Bohio  Soldado  Statiou§  (Rio  Agua  Salud) 

. 15  2000 

40-05 

Prijole  (Rio  Prijol  Grande)  . 

. 18  3200 

36-24 

Barbacoas  II  Station  .... 

See  accompanying  maps.  Plates  1 and  2. 

. 23  300 

62-05 

'I*  Tlie  Obispo  falls  into  the  Chagres,  near  Mataeliin.  It  rises  in  a ravine 
among  some  small  hills,  called  Los  Hormigueros,  or  the  Ant  Hillocks,  about 
eight  miles  from  the  Bay  of  Chornera,  ten  miles  S.W.  of  Panama. 

X This  f)lace  derives  its  name  from  having  been  pitched  upon  as  an  encamp- 
ment by  a body  of  troops,  who  sus])cnded  from  a tree  their  banner,  on  which 
was  a lizard,  the  insignia  of  the  Order  of  St.  Jago. 

§ The  soldier’s  hnt.  ih)hio  was  the  Caribisce  name  for  a hut. 

II  Cerro  Gigantc,  from  the  summit  of  which  both  oceans  are  visible,  is 
miles  S.W.  of  Barbacoas  Station. 


THE  PANAMA  BAILROAD. 


45 


Miles. 

Feet  above 
Mid- tide  of  tbe 

Baila  Monos  

25  800  ft. 

Atlantic. 

53 

Mamey  Station 

26  3100 

62-68 

Gorgona 

28  32007 

6 

Matachin 

30 

71-03 

Obispo  Station 

31 

75 

Empire  Station 

35  4500 

218 

Summit  (Cerro  Culebra,  between  B.  Grande 
and  R.  Obispo) 

37 

262-4 

Paraiso  Station 

38  4500 

137 

Pedro  Miguel  Settlement  .... 

40 

88 

Bridge  over  R.  Caimitillo,  a branch  of  R. 
Grande 

41 

34 

Rio  Grande  Station 

43 

17 

Panama  (Railroad  Terminus  at  Playa  Prieta) 

47  3020 

18-7 

The  geology  of  the  line  is  given  in  detail  by  Dr.  Wagner/^  who 
was  sent,  in  1857,  on  a geological  and  botanical  tour  by  the  King 
of  Bavaria.  The  results  of  his  investigations  are  as  follows : 

Formation. 

Aspinwall  .........  Coralline. 

Hindi Tertiary  Tufaf  and  Conglomerate. f 

Tiger  Hill Trachitie  Tufa.f 

Erijole Traeliitic  Breccia.  |1 

Gorgona Dolerite^[  Porphyry.* * * § ** 

Obispo  ........  Dolomite.ff 

Empire  Station Dolerite  Tufa. 

* Wagner,  Moritz,  M.D.,  Beitrage,  in  PetermaniTs  “ Mittlieiluugen.”  Gotha, 
1861. 

f Tufa  is  a name  applied  to  several  different  substances,  the  product  of 
volcanic  ei’uptions ; generally,  it  is  an  aggregate  of  sand,  volcanic  ashes,  and 
fragments  of  scoria  and  lava,  united  by  an  argillaceous  or  muddy  cement.  It 
presents  various  shades  of  grey,  brown,  red,  or  yellow,  and  is  sometimes 
spotted.  Its  hardness  is  moderate,  and  its  fracture  dull  and  earthy. 

X Conglomerate,  a mass  of  fragments  united  by  some  cement. 

§ Trachyte  is  a kind  of  volcanic  porphyry,  usually  containing  crystals  of 
glassy  felspar,  and  exceedingly  rough  to  the  touch;  hence  its  name,  from 
trachus,  rough.  It  sometimes  possesses  a columnar  structure.  It  is  generally 
of  a coarse  grain,  and  with  a degree  of  porosity.  From  this  latter  circum- 
stance it  easily  breaks  down,  and  forms  frequently  a conglomerate  with  other 
substances. 

11  Breccia  is  the  name  applied  to  any  rock  composed  of  angular  fragments 
cemented  together. 

^ Dolerite  is  a variety  of  trap  rock,  composed  of  augite  and  Labrador  fel- 
spar. Augite  is  a mineral  of  a dark  green,  brown,  or  black  colour,  found  in 
volcanic  rocks.  Its  fracture  is  conchoidal  and  uneven.  It  generally  crystal- 
lises in  six  or  eight-sided  prisms  terminated  by  dihedral  summits.  It  is 
attracted  by  the  magnet,  and  scarcely  fusible  by  the  blow-pipe.  With  borax 
it  melts  into  a yellowish  glass,  which,  while  hot,  appears  red.  Augite  consists 
of  silica,  52  ; lime,  13  ; protoxide  of  iron  and  manganese,  16  ; magnesia,  10  : 
and  alumina,  9. 

**  Porphyry,  any  form  of  rock  in  which  one  or  more  minerals  are  scattered 
through  an  earthy  or  compact  base. 

ft  Dolomite,  or  magnesian  limestone,  is  composed  of  magnesia  48,  and 
lime  52. 


40 


THE  PANAMA  BAILROAD. 


At  Tiger  Hill  tlierc  is  a stone  qiiany;  a mile  beyond  l»oliio 
Soldado  is  a quarry  of  free-stone  alongside  the  track;  and  at 
San  Pablo  there  is  one  of  recent  volcanic  rock. 

Jjcyond  the  summit  the  scenery  becomes  bold  and  ])ictures(jne 
in  tlie  liighcst  degree.  Lofty  conical  mountains,  with  dec]) 
ravines  between  them,  and  rocky  s])urs,  rise  on  either  side. 
About  a mile  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  summit,  the  railroad 
passes  along  the  side  of  a huge  basaltic  cliff,  whose  great  crystals, 
nearly  1 foot  in  diameter  and  from  8 to  12  feet  in  length,  lie 
at  an  angle  of  about  40  degrees. 

The  beholder  cannot  but  be  struck  with  admiring  wonder, 
on  contemplating  this  curious  formation,  at  the  regularity  and 
beauty  of  its  crystallisation,  and  with  awe,  when  he  reflects  upon 
the  gigantic  internal  forces  that  have  resulted  in  its  upheaval. 
It  is  one  of  the  few  known  examples  in  the  world  where  the 
natural  ])erpendicular,  which  basaltic  formations  assume  (so 
beautifully  seen  in  Fingafs  Cave  at  Staffa,  and  along  the 

Palisades”  of  the  Hudson),  has  been  so  rent  and  displaced ; 
but  this  whole  region  gives  unmistakable  evidence  that  great 
and  comparatively  recent  volcanic  forces  have  been  instrumental 
in  its  formation.  There  is  no  continuity  of  the  mountain  ranges ; 
conical  peaks  rise  up  on  every  side,  perfect  marine  shells  and 
coral  are  found  on  their  very  summits,  and  the  strata  of  the 
rocks,  exposed  by  the  cuttings  on  the  railroad  line,  are  all  vol- 
canic.* On  the  left  of  the  terminus  rises  Cerro  de  los  Buca- 
nieros,  where  ^Morgan  encamped  the  night  before  he  attacked 
Panama. 

The  mortality  during  the  progress  of  the  work  has  been 
greatly  exaggerated.  It  was  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
men  were  always  in  the  wet  while  working  in  the  swamps  near 
the  Atlantic  coast : amongst  those  employed  upon  the  high 
ground  there  was  very  little  loss  of  life. 

Mr.  David  Hoadley,  President  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany, says  :t  The  first  blow  was  struck  in  January,  1850. 
{Since  then  a strict  record  has  been  kept  of  the  deaths  which  have 
occurred  among  the  white  men  employed  by  the  company  ; and, 
u])  to  the  time  of  opening  the  road,  on  the  28th  of  January, 
1855,  the  number  was  293,  of  wdiich  many  are  known  to  have 
been  caused  by  diseases  not  incidental  to  the  climate.  Plow 
many  white  men  were  connected  with  the  work  during  the 
jicriod  cannot  be  accurately  detailed ; but  the  number  was  at  least 
GOOO.  No  record  was  kept  of  the  mortality  among  other  classes 

^ Oils,  Dr.  Op.  cit. 

1 Cojninunicaiion  of  the  Directors  to  the  Stockholders  of  the  Panama  Rail- 
road Company.  New  York,  August,  1855. 


THE  PANAMA  KAILROAD.  47 

of  labourers ; but  tlie  proportion  was  greater  among  coolies,  and 
less  among  Jamaica  men  and  natives.” 

Thus  the  mortality  amongst  the  wliitc  men  was  only  one  per 
cent,  for  each  of  the  five  years.  Owing  to  the  terraqueous 
nature  of  the  Atlantic  portion  of  the  line,  the  labourers  were 
constantly  in  the  wet,  day  and  night,  standing  and  lying.  The 
prolonged  suppression  of  perspiration  caused  by  this  unwhole- 
some condition  of  existence,  aided  by  the  malarious  or  mephitic 
miasmata,  evolved  by  the  decomposing  vegetable  and  animal 
matters  in  the  swamp,  gave  rise  to  remittent  fevers,  which  would 
not  have  been  very  fatal  had  tliere  been  any  dry  place  for  the 
patients ; since,  in  the  eight  or  nine  cases  that  the  author  at- 
tended in  Aspinwall,  the  fever  yielded  readily  to  treatment. 
The  greatest  mortality  was  amongst  the  Chinese,  numbers  of 
whom  committed  suicide,  probably  from  nostalgia,  or  home 
sickness.  Sometimes  six  or  seven  were  found  in  a morning  hung 
from  trees  along  the  line. 

The  town  of  Aspinwall  or  Colon  was  first  settled  in  1850  by 
the  employh  of  the  Company.  On  the  completion  of  the  line 
as  far  as  Gatun,  and  the  consequent  abandonment  of  Chagres, 
it  suddenly  rose  into  importance  as  a receiving  and  transshipping 
depot.  It  was  formally  inaugurated  as  a city  on  the  2nd  of 
February,  1852,  by  Don  Victoriano  Paredes,  the  Foreign  Secre- 
tary of  New’  Granada.  It  derives  its  names  from  Aspinwall,  of 
the  firm  of  Howland  and  Aspinwall,  the  contractors,  and  from 
Columbus,  who  is  called  Colon  by  the  Spaniards.  It  is 
situated  on  Manzanillo  Island,  on  the  east  side  of  Navy  Bay, 
in  lat.  9°  21'  23"  N.,  long.  79°  53'  52"  W.,  and  has  a population 
of  2000.  Its  situation  is  low  and  swampy,  and  it  has  the 
most  rainy  climate  of  any  part  of  the  Isthmus.  This  might 
be  improved  by  clearing  away  the  bush  on  the  island.  Some 
wide  and  deep  basins  have  been  dug  close  to  the  ♦town  for  the 
purpose  of  draining  it. 

A magnificent  wharf  extends  out  upon  a coral  reef,  nearly 
1000  feet,  to  where  a depth  of  water  exists  sufficient  to  float 
the  largest  ships.  It  is  40  ft.  wide,  and  covered  by  a lofty 
metallic  roof : the  piles  upon  which  it  stands  are  coppered 
to  protect  them  from  the  teredo  navalis.  This  wharf  is  a 
great  convenience,  as  passengers,  on  landing,  can  at  once 
take  their  seats  in  the  cars  for  Panama,  or,  vice  versd^  can 
step  out  of  the  train  and  embark  directly  on  hoard  a steamer. 
Close  to  it  there  is  a fire-proof  warehouse,  300  ft.  long  and 
85  ft.  wide.  The  houses,  about  200  in  number,  are  of  wood, 
and  built  in  a style  midway  between  the  New  England  hcmse 
and  the  verandah  structures  usual  in  the  tropics.  The  mess- 
room  of  the  Company’s  officers.  Colonel  Totten’s  house,  John- 


48 


THE  PANAMA  RAILBOAD. 


son’s  icc-liousc,  tlic  American  Hotel,  and  Asplnwall  House  arc 
tlie  principal  buildings.  Excc])t  those  belonging  to  the  Com- 
pany, all  the  houses  are  built  on  land  leased  from  it  by  ])rivate 
individuals.  Manzanillo  Island,  being  a low  coral  foundation, 
has  no  spring ; water  is,  therefore,  collected  in  large  iron  tanks, 
of  which  there  are  several.  In  the  market  green  turtle  is 
abundant,  at  five  cents  ])er  lb.  As])inwall,  though  belonging  to 
New  Granada,  has  a separate  civil  government,  the  control  of 
Avhich  is  possessed  chiefly  l)y  residents  from  the  United  States, 
most  of  whom  are  connected  with  the  Company.  A riot 
occurred  here,  on  the  15th  of  April,  1850,  between  the  Grana- 
dians and  the  Americans,  and  much  pro])erty  was  destroyed,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  latter  presented  claims  at  Bogota  for 
indemnification  for  losses  to  the  amount  of  1,200,000  dollars. 
These  were  settled  by  the  Herran-Cass  Treaty,  signed  at  Wash- 
ington on  the  lOth  of  September,  1857.  The  greatest  rise  of 
tide  in  Navy  Bay  is  1*00  It. ; at  Panama  it  is  21*30  ft. 

The  construction  account,  closed  in  1858,  amounted  to 
8,000,000  of  dollars,  equivalent,  at  4s.  6d.  for  the  American 
dollar,  to  1,800,000/.  The  cost  of  the  line  was,  therefore, 
37,894/.  per  mile. 

Begular  trains  are  despatched  daily  from  Aspinwall  to  Panama, 
and  from  Panama  to  Aspinwall,  calling  at  Gatun,  Bohio,  Barba- 
coas,  Matachin,  and  the  Summit  Stations.  The  journey  occu- 
pies four  hours.  Special  trains  are  also  employed  whenever  the 
service  cannot  be  adequately  performed  by  the  regular  trains. 
There  are  often  as  many  as  five  or  six  daily,  for  weeks  together. 
On  the  arrival  of  steamers  at  Aspinwall  trains  are  despatched  at 
any  hour,  so  soon  as  the  passengers  are  landed.  On  the  arrival 
of  a steamer  at  Panama,  the  trains  start  immediately  on  the 
landing  of  the  passengers  for  Aspinwall,  where  they  step  from 
the  cars  into  the  steamers  without  any  delay.  The  fare  is  25 
dollars,  or  5/.  4s.  2d.  The  special  rates  of  freight  vary  from  a 
quarter  of  a cent  to  ten  cents  per  lb.  First-class  freight  is  50 
cents  per  cubic  foot,  coal  5,  and  coke  7 dollars  per  ton  of 
2240  lbs.  The  freight  on  silver  in  bars  is  f,  silver  ore  -J,  and 
gold  ^ per  cent  on  value.  The  express  freight  by  steamer  trains 
is  1 dollar  80  cents  per  cubic  foot. 

Besides  merchandise  from  Europe  for  the  Pacific,  the  principal 
articles  conveyed  by  this  line  are  hides,  india-rubber,  cinchona 
bark,  tobacco,  orchilla,  dye-woods,  ])earl  shells,  Panama  hats, 
cigars,  sperm  oil,  vegetable  ivory,  ceroons  of  indigo  and  cochineal 
from  San  Salvador  and  Guatemala,  coffee  from  Costa  Pica, 
cocoa  from  Ecuador,  sarsaparilla  from  Nicaragua,  copper  ore 
from  Ihdivia,  silver  bars  from  Chili,  boxes  of  dollars  from 
Mexico,  and  gold  ore  from  California. 


THE  PANAMA  BAILKOAD. 


49 


Colonel  Totten,  the  superintendent  of  the  railroad,  has  lately 
published  a statement  of  the  work  of  the  line  from  its  opening, 
in  January,  1855,  to  December,  1866.  During  this  period  of 
nearly  twelve  years,  the  number  of  passengers  carried  was 
396,032. 

The  treasure  transported  exceeded  500,000,000  dollars  in  gold, 

„ 147,000,000  „ in  silver, 

„ „ „ 5,000,000  „ in  jewellery,  and 

„ „ „ 19,000,000  „ in  paper  money. 

The  tonnage  of  general  merchandise  exceeded  600,000,000,  or  upwards  of 
155,500,000/. 

In  1856,  the  total  income  was  . . 1,360,741  „ 

„ „ expenses  . . . 530,249  „ 


„ „ net  proceeds  . 

Ill  1866,  the  total  income  was 


expenses  . . 


830,492 

2,424,977 

1,208,364 


net  proceeds  . . 1,216,613 


On  the  Atlantic  side  the  lines  of  steamers  communicating  with 
the  railroad  are : 

1.  Tlie  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company’s  vessels,  running 
every  fortnight  between  Southampton,  the  West  Indies,  the 
East  coast  of  South  and  Central  America,  and  Aspinwall.  The 
fleet  consists  of  23  large  steamers,  of  which  the  Tyne^  Tamar, 
Solent,  and  Eider  run  between  St.  Thomas  and  Aspinwall.  A 
vessel  leaves  Southampton  for  Aspinwall  on  the  2nd  and  17th 
of  each  month. 

2.  The  West  India  and  Pacific  Steamship  Company’s  vessels, 
which  leave  Liverpool  for  Aspinwall  on  the  10th  and  25th  of 
each  month.  The  fleet  of  this  Company  consists  of  the  Grana- 
dian, West  Indian,  Caribbean,  American,  Californian,  Chilian, 
Mexican,  St.  Thomas,  Colombian,  Cuban,  Bolivar,  Darien, 
Hayti,  Crusader,  Askalon,  Barbadian,  Talisman,  Plantagenet, 
Albion,  and  Venezuelan. 

3.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Steamship  Company’s  vessels, 
which  leave  New  York  (foot  of  Warren  St.,  North  River) 
at  noon  on  the  1st,  8th,  16th,  and  24th  of  each  month,  for 
Aspinwall.  Fare,  40  dollars  in  the  steerage  and  70  dollars  in 
the  state-room.  By  arrangement  with  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company  and  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company,  through 
passage  tickets  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  are  furnished 
for  200  dollars  in  the  first  cabin,  150  dollars  in  the  second,  and 
100  dollars  in  the  steerage,  these  fares  including  board.  The 
passage  from  New  York  to  Aspinwall  is  usually  made  in  eight 
days. 

4.  A French  line  that  has  recently  commenced  running  from 

E 


50 


THE  rANAl\rA  EAILEOAE. 


St.  Nazaire  to  Aspinwall.  r>esi(lcs  tlic  stoam  lines,  tlicrc  arc 
lines  of  sailinpj  packets  from  Liverpool,  New  York,  Ilrenien, 
Bordeaux,  and  St.  Nazaire  to  As])inwall.  The  two  first  belong 
to  the  Panama  Kailroad  Com])any. 

The  communications  between  Panama  and  the  Pacific  ports 
arc  maintained  by  the  following  lines  of  steamers : 

1.  The  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Com])any’s  vessels,  ])lying 
every  fortnight  between  Panama,  and  Buenaventura,  and 
Tumaco,  in  New  Granada;  Esmeraldas,  jManta,  and  Guayaquil, 
in  Ecuador;  Tumbes,  Payta,  Lambayeque,  Pacasmayo,  iMala- 
hrigo,  iruanchaco,  Santa,  Samanco,  Casma,  Iluarmcy,  Su])e, 
Iluacho,  Callao,  Cerro  Azul,  d'ambo  de  Mora,  the  Chincha 
Islands,  Pisco,  Chala,  Quilca,  Islay,  llo,  Arica,  iMexilloncs, 
Pisagua,  and  Iquique,  in  Peru ; I'ocopilla  and  Cobija,  in 
Bolivia ; and  Taltal,  Ohanaral,  Caldera,  Carrizal-bajo  and 
Iluasco,  Coquimbo,  d’ongoy,  Valparaiso,  Tome,  Talcahuano, 
J^ota,  Corral  (Valdivia),  Ancud,  Calbuco,  and  Port  Montt,  in 
Chili.  The  steamers  of  this  Com])any  are  the  Talca^  Kcuadovy 
Bof/otd^  lAina^  Callao,  V alparaiso,  Guaya(pdl,  San  Carlos, 
Bolivia,  Anne,  Cloda,  Ne^v  Granada,  Inca,  Morro,  and  BaytaA 
A contract  was  concluded  iii  1846,  between  the  British  Govern- 
ment and  this  Company,  for  the  conveyance  of  the  mails  on  the 
AYest  Coast  of  South  America. 

2.  The  Panama  Railroad  Company’s  Central  American  line 
of  steamers,  running  every  fortnight  between  Panama,  Punta 
Arenas,  Reale  jo.  La  Union,  La  Libertad,  Acajutla,  and  San 
Jose  de  Guatemala. 

3.  The  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Compan^-’s  vessels,  which  run 
every  week  from  Panama  to  San  Francisco,  California,  touch- 
ing at  Manzanillo  and  Acapulco,  in  Mexico.  The  passage  from 
Panama  to  San  Francisco  is  generally  made  in  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  days.  The  vessels  of  this  Company  are  the  Golden 
Age,  Golden  Gate,  Sonora,  St.  Louis,  Uncle  Sa^n,  Washington, 
Orizaba,  Fremo7it,  Califo^mia,  Co7istitution,  and  two  others. 

4.  The  Imperial  Mexican  Company  of  packets  in  the  Pacific, 
plying  monthly  between  San  Francisco,  La  Paz,  Guaymas,  and 
Mazatlan,  and  every  fortnight  between  Mazatlan  and  Acapulco, 
touching  at  San  Bias  and  Manzanillo.  This  and  the  Oregon  line 
were  established  in  1861,  by  Holliday  and  Flint,  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, who  purchased  the  steamers  Panama,  Cortez,  Republic, 
Columbia,  and  Sier^^a  Nevada,  from  the  Pacific  Steamship  Com- 

^ Tlin  Vayta,  1800  tons,  arrived  at  Valparaiso  in  November,  1864,  having 
made  the  voyage  from  Liverpool,  deducting  stoppages,  in  31  days,  14  hours, 
and  59  minutes,  altliough  she  liad  to  contend  with  a head  wind,  a heavy  sea, 
and  an  adverse  current  of  7 miles  an  hour  in  passing  through  the  Straits  of 
Magellan.  The  TAmena  made  the  run  from  Liverpool  to  Valparaiso  in 
38  days. 


Perico 


ILei\eu> 


'SliMM 


urud  by  Gojre/l^ 


Ipo^  deL 

forUe, 


Nmbery  AUncarider,  hthM  CoAtU  SlHolbom. 


Plfeute  1 . 


PAIY  A M A PA  I P‘  yr  AT 


i PANAMA^ 


itCtCMACRES 


THE  PANAMA  PAILROAD. 


51 


pany,  by  whom  those  lines  had  been  previously  managed.  On 
the  31st  of  January,  1865,  Maximilian’s  Government  agreed  to 
pay  an  annual  subsidy,  for  seven  years  from  that  date,  of 
70,000  dollars  for  the  main,  and  25,000  dollars  for  the  branch 
line,  the  former  to  be  under  the  United  States’  flag,  the  latter 
under  the  Mexican. 

5.  The  Oregon  and  California  Steamship  Company’s  five 
vessels,  plying  between  California  and  Eureka  (Humboldt  Bay), 
Crescent  City,  Port  Orford,  Umpqua,  and  Gardiner  City,  in 
Oregon  ; Esquimault,  Victoria,  in  Vancouver’s  Island ; and  Port 
Townsend,  Steilacoom,  and  Olympia,  in  Washington  Territory. 

6.  The  Panama,  New  Zealand,  and  Australian  Boyal  Mail 
Company’s  Steamers.  This  company  has  a yearly  subsidy  of 
90,000/.,  for  the  main  line,  to  be  increased  to  110,000/.,  if  the 
New  Zealand  Government  should  require  the  rate  of  speed  to 
be  increased  to  ten  knots  an  hour.  That  sum,  with  the  sub- 
sidies  for  intercolonial  services,  would  make  an  aggregate  of 
upwards  of  150,000/.  per  annum. 

The  imports  and  exports  of  the  Australian  colonies  for  1863 
were  : 

Imports £34,264,597 

Exports 28,378,355 

Total  ...  £02,642,952 

The  exports  ineluded  £12,677,319  of  bullion  and  speeie. 

7.  The  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company’s  monthly  line,  run- 
ning between  California  and  China,  consisting  of  four  first-class 
steamers  of  from  3000  to  4000  tons,  for  which  they  receive  a 
subsidy  of  100,000  dollars  per  annum,  under  contract  with  the 
United  States’  Government  for  10  years,  from  November,  1865. 
The  route  via  Kanagawa  is  6200  miles  long. 

8.  The  California,  Oregon,  and  Mexican  Steamship  Com- 
pany’s monthly  line  from  San  Francisco  to  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
under  contract  with  the  United  States’  Government,  dated  Sep- 
tember 5,  1866. 

By  the  old  way  of  transit,  one  had  to  flounder  on  through 
heavy  swamps,  across  rapid  streams,  along  the  borders  of  deep 
ravines,  and  over  precipitous  hills,  exposed  alternately  to  the 
drenching  rain  and  the  broiling  sun.  But  there  is  no  longer 
either  difSculty  or  discomfort  to  be  feared  in  crossing  the 
Isthmus.  Now  the  railroad,  passing,  as  it  does,  through  the 
heart  of  a primeval  forest,  and  among  the  wildest  and  most 
picturesque  hill  scenery,  along  beautiful  rivers,  fertile  plains,  and 
luxuriant  lowlands,  where  the  vegetation  at  every  season  is 
varied  and  gorgeous  beyond  comparison,  affords  the  traveller  an 
opportunity  of  easy  enjoyment  of,  and  acquaintance  with,  inter- 
tropical  nature,  unsurpassed  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

E 2 


52 


ISTHMUS  OF  UAEIEN  AND  THE  STTIP  CANAL. 


Fehruarij  11  th^  18G8. 

BALDWIN  LATllA^I,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

ON  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  DAPJEN  AND  THE  SHIP 

CANAL.* 


By  Dr.  Cullen. 

The  United  States  of  Colomiha. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  first  decade  of  tlie  present  century 
Spain  held  undisputed  sway  over  the  nortliern  part  of  South 
America,  which  then  constituted  the  Captaincy-General  of  Car- 
accas  (Venezuela)  and  the  Viceroyalty  of  New  Granada.  In 
the  latter  was  included  the  Central  American  Isthmus  as  far 
west  as  Costa  Pica.  In  1800,  a futile  attempt  to  revolutionise 
Venezuela  was  made  by  General  Miranda.  In  1810  com- 
menced the  general  revolt  of  the  Spanish  colonies  against  the 
mother  country,  which  was  brought  to  a successful  issue  by 
Simon  Bolivar,  the  Liberator,  in  Venezuela,  New  Granada,  and 
Eqnador,  by  San  Martin  and  Sucre,  in  Peru,  and  by  Iturbide 
and  Santa  Anna,  in  Mexico.  The  following  are  the  principal 
events  of  this  prolonged  war  between  the  European  Spaniards 
and  the  native  Creoles,  the  horrors  of  which  were  increased  by 
the  extraordinary  natural  difficulties  of  those  countries,  and  the 
total  absence  of  roads  properly  so  called.  ^ 

1810,  July  20,  Antonio  Amar  Borbon,  the  last  Viceroy, 
overthrown  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota. 

1811,  March  28,  General  Baraya  (Pepublican),  gained  the 
battle  of  Palace,  in  Popayan. 

November  12,  a congress  held  at  Bogota,  which,  following 
the  example  of  Venezuela,  proclaimed  the  Republic. 

1814,  December  12,  Bolivar  stormed  Bogota,  and  overthrew 
the  government  of  Cnndinamarca. 

1815,  April  13,  General  Pablo  Morillo  arrived  at  Porto 
Santo,  in  Venezuela,  with  15,000  men  from  Spain.  Decembei’ 5, 
Morillo  took  Carthagena  by  famine  after  116  days’  siege. 

* llcfcrencc  is  made  to  the  map  which  accompanies  Dr.  Cullen’s  first 
paper. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


53 


1816,  May  30,  Morillo  entered  Bogota.  June  13,  Morillo  shot 
the  maiden  Policarpa  Salavarrieta  and  others.  1819,  August 
7,  Bolivar  defeated  and  took  Barreiro  at  Boyaca,  in  tlie 
province  of  Tunja.  August  10,  Bolivar  took  Bogota.  Decem- 
ber 17,  a law  was  passed  by  the  Congress  of  Angostura  (now 
Ciudad  Bolivar),  on  the  Orinoco,  in  Venezuela,  ereating  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  by  the  union  of  Venezuela  and  New 
Granada;  Bolivar  elected  President,  and  Francisco  A.  Zea, 
Francisco  de  Paula  Santander,  and  Roscio  Vice-Presidents. 
1820,  San  Martin  obtained  possession  of  Lima.  1821,  May  6, 
the  installation  of  Congress  took  place  at  San  Rosario  de 
Cucuta,  in  the  province  of  Pamplona.  June  24,  a decisive 
victory  gained  at  Carabobo,  in  Venezuela.  October  11,  Cartha- 
gena  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  Montilla.  November  17,  Pa- 
nama taken  by  Bolivar.  1822,  May  24,  a great  victory  gained 
by  the  Republicans  at  Pichincha,  in  Equador.  May  29,  Equador, 
the  former  Viceroyalty  of  Quito,  joined  the  Republic  of  Co- 
lombia. August  3,  Maracaybo  in  Venezuela  capitulated. 
1823,  November  10,  Porto  Cabello,  Venezuela,  capitulated  to 
Jose  Antonio  Paez. 

1824,  June  1,  last  Spanish  battle  in  Colombia  fought  at 
Barbacoas,  in  the  province  of  Pasto.  December  9,  last  Spanish 
battle  in  South  America  gained  by  the  Colombians  and  Pe- 
ruvians, under  Sucre,  over  the  Spaniards,  commanded  by  the 
Viceroy  Canterac,  at  Ayacucho,  in  Peru.  1825,  September  15, 
the  castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  in  Vera  Cruz  harbour,  the 
last  stronghold  of  Spain  in  Central  America,  surrendered  to 
General  Santa  Anna  by  General  Don  Jose  Copinger,  after  a 
prolonged  defence  during  which  most  of  the  garrison  died  of 
fever  or  famine.  1826,  January  29,  the  Spanish  flag  waved 
for  the  last  time  on  American  soil,  the  garrison  of  Callao,  in 
Peru,  under  General  Rodil,  having  surrendered  by  capitulation 
to  General  Sucre. 

1829,  November  24,  Venezuela  seceded,  under  Paez,  from 
Colombia.  1830,  June  4,  assassination  of  Marshal  Antonio 
Jose  de  Sucre  at  the  pass  of  Berruecos  in  Pasto.  December  17, 
Bolivar  died  at  San  Pedro,  in  the  district  of  Marmato,  near 
Santa  Martha.  1831,  Colombia  dismembered  by  the  separation 
of  Equador,  and  the  independent  Republics  of  Venezuela,  New 
Granada,  and  Equador  formed.  1857,  during  the  Presidency 
of  Citizen  Mariano  Ospina,  the  thirty-six  provinces  and  two  ter- 
ritories of  New  Granada  united  into  eight  Federal  States,  and 
the  title  of  the  Republic  changed  to  that  of  the  Granadian 
Confederation. 

1861,  July  18,  after  the  taking  of  Bogota,  during  the  last 
of  the  civil  wars  which  have  distracted  New  Granada,  and 


54 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


wliicli  lasted  from  1859  to  1803,  tlie  title  of  the  Confederation 
was  altered  to  that  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  by  a 
decree  of  General  Tomas  Ci])riano  de  ]\Ios((ncra,  the  ])rovisional 
President,  and  commander  of  the  liberal  forces. 

Mosqucra  liad  been  President  from  1845  to  1819,  was  a^ain 
elected  by  the  people  in  1805,  and  entered  into  otlice  in  Man^h, 
1800  ; but  was  taken  prisoner,  tried,  and  banished  for  four 
years,  in  1807. 


The  State  of  the  Isthmus. 

It  is  to  the  United  States  of  Colombia  that  the  narrow  neck 
of  land,  extending  from  the  continent  of  South  America  to 
Costa  iiica,  belongs.  The  Avestern  third  is  the  Isthmus  of 
Veraguas,^  or  Chiriqui ; the  central,  the  Isthmus  of  Panama; 
and  the  eastern  third,  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  Taken  together, 
those  isthmi  form  the  State  of  the  Isthmus  (Estado  del  Istmo), 
Avhieh  extends  from  lat.  0°  50'  to  9°  40'  N.,  and  from  long.  77°  to 
83°  10'  W.  Its  length  is  4G0,  and  its  average  breadtli  about 
50  miles.  The  narroAvest  part  is  27,  and  the  Avidest  105  miles. 

Its  configuration  is  that  of  a boAAq  the  coast  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea  forming  the  convex,  and  that  on  the  Pacific  the  concave 
line.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Atlantic,  on  the  S.  by  the 
Pacific,  on  the  E.  by  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  the  river  Atrato,  and 
the  province  of  Choco,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  republic  of  Costa 
Eica.  The  boundary  line  between  the  state  and  the  province 
of  Choco  runs  from  the  mouths  of  the  Atrato,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Darien,  up  that  river  to  the  confluence  of  the  Napipi  Avith  it, 
up  the  Napipi  to  its  sources,  and  from  thence  across  the  Cordil- 
lera to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cupica,  in  Cupica  Bay,  on  the 
Pacific.  The  boundary  between  it  and  Costa  Eica  runs  from 
Punta  Burica,  on  the  Pacific,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Changuene, 
or  Dorachos,  on  the  Atlantic.  It  is  divided  into  the  provinces 
of  Panama,  Azuero,  Yeraguas,  and  Chiriqui  (formerly  Bocas 
del  Toro),  and  the  territory  of  Burica.  These  are  subdivided 
into  cantons,  each  having  several  parishes.  The  total  civilised 
population  of  the  state,  according  to  the  census  of  1851,  Avas 
138,108.  To  this  may  be  added  5000  for  the  estimated  number 
of  the  independent  Indians  of  Yeraguas  and  Chiriqui,  and  3000 
for  those  of  Darien,  making  the  total  146,108.  The  state  sends 

Veragnas  gave  the  title  of  Duke  to  Columbus  and  his  desceiidauts.  It 
Avas  onee  abolished  by  tlie  King  of  Spain,  but  restored  after  a lawsuit  whieh 
the  Colon  (Colunil)us)  family  earried  on  against  the  Crown  for  more  than  thirty 
years.  I'hc  late  Duke  of  Yeraguas,  Count  of  Jamaiea,  &c,,  Don  Pedro 
Colon,  was  eleeted  President  of  the  Cortes  of  Spain,  about  the  end  of  ISGl, 
and  died  in  1800. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


55 


three  senators  and  three  representatives  to  the  general  Congress 
at  Bogota. 

In  the  time  of  the  Spaniards  the  whole  isthmus  constituted 
the  province  of  Tierra  Firme.  In  1821,  during  the  War  of 
Independence,  it  was  incorporated  with  Colombia.  Upon  the 
crismemberment  of  that  republic,  in  1831,  it  became  a pro\lnce 
of  New  Granada.  In  1857,  it  became  a state  of  the  Granadian 
Confederation,  and,  in  1861,  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia. 

The  Isthmi  of  Panama  and  Daeien. 

The  Isthmus  of  Panama  comprehends  the  western  part  of  the 
province  of  Panama.  The  Isthmus  of  Darien  constitutes  nearly 
one-half  of  the  State.  Having,  however,  only  a very  scanty  popu 
lation,  it  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  province  of  Panama, 
of  which  it  forms  a canton,  which  is  twice  as  large  as  the  rest  of 
the  province. 

The  boundary  between  it  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  as 
determined  by  a decree  of  Congress,  dated  Bogota,  August  7, 
1847,  is  a line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Chepo,*  or  Bayano,  ^ 
in  the  Gulf  of  Panama,  up  the  Chepo,  across  the  Cordillera  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Mandinga,  in  the  Gulf  of  San  Bias,  and  round 
its  shore  to  Cape  San  Bias,  corresponding  nearly  to  the  meridian 
of  79°  W. 


Mountains. 

The  surface  of  the  isthmus  is  extremely  irregular,  being 
traversed  by  a chain  of  mountains,  which  is  a continuation  of  the 
great  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  and  intersected  by  the  spurs  and 
ramifications  which  it  sends  off  in  various  directions.  The  Cor- 
dillera, which  follows  the  direction  of  the  Pacific  coast,  close  to 
which  it  runs,  passes  from  Equador  into  Colombia  in  about 
1°  N.,  and,  after  traversing  the  provinces  of  Pasto,  Popayan, 
Buenaventura,  and  Choco,  enters  Darien  in  about  6°  18'  N., 
inland  of  Cruces  Point.  From  Equador,  in  which  republic  it 
rises  above^the  lower  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  its  altitude  rapidly 
decreases  to  Buenaventura  river,  and  thence  to  the  San  Juan. 
In  about  7°  SOJ  N.,  near  the  height  called  Alto  de  Espave,  it 
bifurcates.  The  western  branch  continues  to  run  close  to  the 
Pacific,  and  terminates  in  the  beautiful  mountain  of  Garachine, 
behind  the  point  of  the  same  name,  which  is  the  S.  entrance 

* The  town  of  Chepo,  population  1536,  is  in  the  Canton  of  Panama.  It  is 
situated  .a  few  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Panama  on  the  Mamoni,  a river  the 
lower  course  of  which  is  parallel  to  and  a short  distance  west  of  the  lower 
course  of  tlie  Chepo. 


5G 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


of  tlie  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  and  tlic  S.E.  entrance  of  the  (jiulf 
of  Panama.  The  height  of  this  mountain  is  about  GOOO  ft., 
and  it  is  said  to  contain  veins  of  gold  in  (jiiartz  rock.  Between 
the  San  Juan  and  Garachine  there  are  three  de])ressions. 
The  lirst  is  between  the  (inebrada  del  INIai*  (as  the  head  stream 
of  the  Cnpica  is  called)  and  the  Naj)i})i,  where  the  Bic  de  Ando 
is  estimated  at  only  500  ft.  elevation.  The  second,  further 
north,  is  between  the  Chnparador  and  the  Ilingador,  the  lowest 
summit  level  being  947*44  ft.  The  third,  between  the  tJnrador 
and  the  Salaqni,  has  an  elevation  of  lOOGft.  The  height  of 
this  chain  inland  of  Ardita  l^oint  is  about  bOOOft.  The  most 
conspicuous  summits  which  it  presents  are  Cerro  del  Za))o  (the 
Mountain  of  the  Toad),  half-way  between  Garachine  and  J^ortof 
Pines;  the  Peak  of  Espave,  S.  of  the  latter;  and  Jananb*  and 
the  l^yramid,  inland  of  Cape  Corrientes.  At  some  ])oints  the 
mountains  come  down  epute  close  to  the  shore,  but  generally 
there  is  a narrow  belt  of  low  land  along  the  coast ; and,  at  the 
mouths  of  the  San  Juan  and  other  large  I'ivers,  there  are 
swampy  deltas  submerged  in  the  rainy  season.  Nowhere,  how- 
ever, do  many  miles  intervene  between  the  shore  and  the  high 
land. 

The  other  branch  of  the  Cordillera  runs  across  to  the  N.E. 
towards  the  Atrato,  separating  the  lower  course  of  that  river 
from  the  head  of  the  Tuyra.  From  a point  only  a few  miles 
distant  from  the  Tarena  mouth  of  the  Atrato  it  follows  the 
curved  direction  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  running  parallel  to  it,  at 
the  distance  of  from  two  to  five  miles,  as  far  as  Cape  San  Bias, 
where  it  enters  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  high  range  between 
the  sources  of  the  Tuyra  and  the  Atrato  valley  is  the  Sierra  de 
Maly,  which  sends  off  some  spurs,  called  the  Cacarica  hills, 
that  approach  the  west  bank  of  the  Atrato,  coming  down  nearly 
as  far  as  the  lagoon  on  the  Cacarica  river  just  above  its  mouth. 
Between  the  head-waters  of  the  Paya,  a tributary  of  the  Tuyra, 
and  the  Arquia,  which  falls  into  Cano  Tarena,  the  west  or  main 
channel  of  the  Atrato,  near  its  mouth,  is  Chacargoon,  or 
Tagargona,  mountain,  in  which  there  is  said  to  be  an  abundance 
of  very  fine  gold-dust,  called  by  the  Indians  aasites.  North  of  it 
is  Chistata  mountain,  in  which  there  is  a great  waterfall.  Be- 
tween the  Atrato  mouth  and  Cape  Tiburon  the  Cordillera  takes 
the  name  of  Sierra  do  Estola,  and  presents  the  peaks  of  Cande- 
laria, Tarena,  Gandi,  and  Pico  de  Cabo,  or  Tiburon.  Inland  of 
Carreto  harbour  is  the  Peak  of  Carreto,  and  N.W.  of  it  is  the 
break  in  the  Cordillera,  which  will  be  noticed  hereafter  as 
affording  great  facilities  for  the  construction  of  a ship-canal. 


* All  extinct  volcano  in  Clioco. 


ISTHMUS  OP  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


57 


Inland  of  Sassardi  Point  the  Cordillera  appears  suddenly  to 
terminate,  and  a new  chain  to  arise  a little  behind  its  extremity. 
From  thence  to  Cape  San  Bias  it  presents  some  notable  peaks, 
which  may  serve  as  marks  for  the  various  anchorages  within  the 
islets  and  cays  forming  the  Archipelago  of  the  Mulatas.  They 
are  named  Navagandi,  Putrigandi,  Kweetee  or  Mosquitos,  Bio 
Monos,  Playon  Chico,  Playon  Grande  (two  peaks),  Concepcion 
(four),  Cerro  Meseta,  inland  of  Rio  Azucar,  La  Orqueta,  and 
another,  inland  of  Rio  Diablo,  Rio  Mangles  Peak,  or  Cerro 
Gordo,  and  Carti,  all  of  which,  except  Meseta  and  La  Orqueta, 
are  inland  of  the  mouths  of  rivers  of  the  same  names.  Close  to 
San  Bias  Point  it  is  2300  ft.  high. 

From  Cape  San  Bias,  where  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  com- 
mences, to  Portobello,  a distance  of  45  miles,  the  coast  runs 
westward,  the  only  inhabited  places  on  it  being  the  hamlets  of 
Culebra,  Palenque,  and  Nombre  de  Dios,  founded  by  Don  Diego 
de  Nicuesa;  these  have  an  aggregate  population  of  about  150 
negroes,  who  are  descendants  of  Cimarrones,  or  Spanish  maroons. 
The  Cordillera  in  this  part  of  the  Isthmus  presents  the  peaks  of 
Saxino,  Nombre  de  Dios,  and  Capira. 

A little  west  of  Portobello,  it  becomes  broken  into  a series  of 
oblong  ridges  and  conical  hills,  having  their  bases  skirted  by 
plains.  Inland  of  Navy  Bay  and  Chagres  its  continuity  can 
no  longer  be  traced,  the  hills  thereabouts  being  isolated  and  de- 
tached, and  only  from  200  to  400  feet  in  height.  The  ravines 
which  separate  them  are  but  little  elevated  above  the  general 
level  of  the  country,  and  are  intersected  by  streams  ; and  imme- 
diately inland  of  Navy  Bay  is  the  great  Mindi  swamp,  across 
which  the  Panama  Railroad  was  constructed. 

A few  miles  west  of  Chagres  the  hills  become  connected,  and 
the  Cordillera,  gradually  becoming  more  elevated,  rises  to  a great 
height  in  Yeraguas  and  Chiriqui,  where  it  forms  an  elevated 
plateau  or  table-land,  called  La  Mesa,  the  highest  summits  of 
which  are  Mount  Chiriqui,  11,266,  and  Mont  Blanc,  11,740  ft. 
high.  From  thence  it  declines  towards  Costa  Rica. 

Rivers. 

The  Isthmus  abounds  in  rivers,  the  number  of  which,  exclu- 
sive of  the  small  periodical  streams,  cannot  fall  short  of  200.  In 
the  rainy  season  every  mile  of  land  is  intersected  by  a flowing 
stream,  which  carries  off  the  surplus  water.  In  the  time  of  the 
heaviest  rains  the  rivers  rush  along  with  irresistible  force,  bear- 
ing along  with  them  great  rafts  of  bamboos,  trunks  of  trees  with 
the  branches  on  them,  and  islands  of  floating  grass.  Those 
opening  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Darien,  from  theTarena  mouth 


58 


ISTITMUB  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


of  tlie  Atrato  to  Cape  San  Bias,  aretlic  Tarciia  (nn  iM(le])cn(l(*nt 
river),  Tutuinati,  Trijw^andi,  Gandi,  l^innlolo,  Miel,  Aiiacliu- 
cuna,  IMalaliazai,  Carreto,  Aglatuinati,  Aglnseni(jua,  a consider- 
able river  of  unknown  name  that  falls  into  ( 'aledoina  harbour, 
the  Sassardi,  Navagandi,  Butrigandi,  Tivs  Bocas,  Kweetee,  or 
^Mosquitos,  Zandjogandi,  Cocos,  Jhtgandi,  Monos,  Blayon  (dnco, 
IMajon  Grande,  Conce])cion,  Azucai’,  Diablo,  jMangles,  ^lacol- 
lita,  Carti  or  Cedar,  Carti  Chico,  iSIandinga,  and  Cidata. 

Those  falling  into  the  Bacilic  from  Cruces  I’oint  to  (jlarachine 
Point  are — the  Cupica,  Corredor,  Paracuchichi,  Jurador,  and 
Pinas. 

Ijctween  Punta  Brava  and  the  mouth  of  the  Che])o,  the  GulF 
of  Panama  receives  the  Buenaventura,  Bernado,  Orado,  Ti'ini- 
dad,  JManjue,  Chiman,  Bocafuerte,  Hondo,  Manglar,  iMiiestra, 
Oquendo,  Ikasigua,  Lagartos,  cl  Gricgo,  Centinela,  and  Santa 
Cruz.  Off  Buenaventura  mouth  are  the  Paralloncs  Ingleses 
rocks;  and  inland  of  Hondo  mouth  are  Column,  Thumb,  and 
Asses’  Ears  Peaks.  Off  the  Chepo  is  Che})illo  Island,  and  off 
the  Cliiman  are  Mahagucy  and  iMagucy  Islands. 


Seasons. 

The  seasons  are  the  rainy  and  the  dry.  The  rains  commence 
with  the  new  moon,  in  April,  and  continue  seven  or  eight  months 
until  the  end  of  November  or  December.  In  the  district  of 
Biruquete  (the  extreme  south  of  Darien)  and  in  Choco,  they  are 
ju’olonged  for  ten  or  even  eleven  months.  Slight  at  first,  the 
rain  gradually  increases,  and  is  fully  established  at  the  end  of 
]May,  when  it  falls  in  torrents,  accompanied  with  terrific  bursts 
of  thunder  and  flashes  of  lightning.  In  June,  July,  and 
August  there  is  sometimes  a heavy  shower  every  day  for  several 
successive  days.  The  air  is  loaded  with  moisture,  and  mists 
with  calms  or  variable  winds  prevail.  Although  the  tem]3erature 
seldom  rises  above  87°  Fahr.,  still,  perspiration  being  impeded, 
the  atmosphere  feels  extremely  hot  and  close. 

In  the  height  of  the  rainy  season,  when  the  sun  is  at  its 
greatest  northern  declination,  the  rains  are  suspended,  and  for 
nearly  a week  after  the  20th  of  June  the  sun  shines  with  the 
greatest  sjilendour,  and  the  sky  becomes  clear  and  serene.  No 
instance  is  known  of  irregidarity  in  the  recurrence  of  this  sin- 
gidar  and  unexplained  break  in  the  ordinary  course  of  the 
season.  The  same  phenomenon  occurs  in  Demerara,  Venezuela, 
;ind  probably  in  all  the  north  of  South  America,  within  Hum- 
boldt’s zone  of  constant  ])rccipitation.”  This  period  of  dry 
weather  is  called  el  vevanito  de  San  Jaan^  or  the  little  summer  of 
St.John,  because  it  commences  on  the  21st  of  June,  St.  John’s- 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


59 


day,  wliicli  is  kept  as  a festival  of  great  social  enjoyment  through- 
out Spanish  America.  It  may  be  observed,  en  passant,  that  a 
custom,  evidently  of  Druidical  origin,  prevails  amongst  Celtic 
nations  of  lighting  bonfires  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains  on  the 
niglit  of  the  20th  of  June. 

Towards  the  end  of  November  or  December  the  rains  di- 
minish in  frequency,  the  clouds  begin  to  disperse,  and,  with  the 
commencement  of  the  new  year,  the  N.W.  wind  sets  in.  An  im- 
mediate change  ensues,  the  air  becomes  more  pure  and  refreshing, 
the  sun  shines  brilliantly,  the  sky  becomes  blue,  not  a cloud  is  to 
be  seen,  and  the  climate  displays  all  its  tropical  beauties.  The 
heat,  although  greater,  ranging  between  75°  and  94°,  is  less  felt, 
as  the  atmosphere  is  almost  free  from  moisture.  The  almost 
vertical  rays  of  the  sun  are  then  very  powerful,  the  rise  of  the 
thermometer  to  124°,  when  exposed  at  noon  to  their  full  in- 
fluence, l^eing  no  uncommon  phenomenon. 

Some  precise  information  regarding  the  amount  of  the  rainfall 
on  the  Isthmus  has  probably  been  communicated  to  the  Smith- 
sonian Institute  at  Washington  by  Dr.  Quakenbosch,  of  Aspin- 
wall,  the  physician  to  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  who 
received  a set  of  meteorological  instruments  from  that  body  in 
November,  1862. 

On  the  Isthmus  the  days  and  nights  are  always  of  nearly 
equal  length,  the  sun  rising  about  6 A.M.,  and  setting  about 
6 P.M. 

Climate. 

The  Isthmus,  being  so  near  the  equator  and  having  so  vast  an 
extent  of  forest  and  uncultivated  land  and  so  great  a rainfall, 
has,  naturally,  a hot  and  moist  climate.  Nevertheless,  with  the 
exception  of  a few  localities,  it  may  be  regarded  as  being  healthy, 
and  more  favourable  to  the  constitution  of  the  Caucasian  race 
than  that  of  most  intertropical  countries.  The  mouths  of  rivers 
which  have  deltas,  inundated  or  drowned  lands  in  their  vicinity 
— as  those  of  the  Atrato  and  the  Chagres — are  unhealthy.  So 
are  Portobello  and  Aspinwall,  owing  to  the  swampy  nature  of 
the  soil  in  their  neighbourhood.  In  such  places  remittent  fevers, 
of  a type  much  milder  than  the  yellow  fever,  occasionally  attack 
Europeans  and  North  Americans,  but  seldom  prove  fatal. 
Where  the  ground  is  elevated  a few  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  there  are  no  swamps,  no  endemic  exists,  except  the 
intermittent  fever,  which  prevails  all  over  South  and  North 
America,  and  even  in  Canada.  It  is  much  milder  than  in  the 
West  Indies,  or  even  in  the  Western  States,  and  is  by  no  means 
obstinate.  The  cold  stage  is  generally  either  entirely  wanting, 
or  passes  off  in  a momentary  chill,  whilst  in  the  Demerara 


GO 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  STUP  CANAL. 


a, "lie  tlicrc  is  frequently  a rigour  of  four  liours’  (liii’atiou. 
The  liot  stage  seldom  lasts  more  than  foiu’  hours,  or  the 
s^Yeating  stage  more  than  two.  The  usual  form  is  the  tertian, 
wliich  recurs  every  second  day,  the  jiatient  heing  well  on  the  day 
hetweeu  every  two  attacks,  ddie  (jiiotidian,  in  Avhich  there  is  an 
attack  every  day,  and  the  quartan,  in  which  the  paroxysm  comes 
oil  every  third  day,  are  rare.  The  attacks  are  few  in  nnmher, 
and  ])rol)ably  the  average  may  be  only  live  or  six.  The  coin- 
])laint  yields  readily  to  suljdiatc  of  quinine,*  the  ctHcacyof  which 
is  much  increased  by  administering  the  tincture  of  ses(|uichloride 
of  iron,  or  steel  drops,  in  combination  with  it. 

It  is  quite  possible,  however,  for  a jicrson  to  live  on  the 
isthmus  for  months,  or  even  years,  without  ever  suffering  from 
an  attack  of  fever.  Colonel  Jjloyd  states  that  the  family  of  the 
British  consul  resided  four  years  in  Panama  without  an  hour’s 
sickness;  and  Lloyd  and  Fahnark  Avcrc  seventeen  months  on  the 
isthmus,  during  the  ivliole  of  the  time  exposed  to  the  utmost 
rigour  of  the  sun  and  rain,  yet  they  escaped  with  entire  im- 
punity. 

The  comparative  healthiness  of  the  Isthmus  may  be  owing  to 
the  great  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  washing  away  the  decom- 
posing vegetable  matter,  and  absorbing  the  morbific  gases 
evolved;  whilst  the  rivers  rapidly  carry  off  the  surjilus  water,  and 
prevent  it  from  lodging  and  forming  stagnant  pools.  The  equa- 
bility of  the  temperature,  Avhich  is  not  subject  to  great  vicissi- 
tudes or  sudden  changes,  the  range  of  the  thermometer  being 
within  narrow^  limits,  never  falling  below  75°  (on  the  loivlands), 
and  rarely  rising  above  95°,  also  contributes  to  the  healthiness 
of  the  climate. 

Negroes  sometimes  suffer  from  slight  cutaneous  diseases,  but 
elephantiasis  Arahica^  or  Barbadoes  leg,”  is  not  so  common  as 
in  other  parts  of  New  Granada.  The  true  leprosy  (lepra 
Groecorum),  Avhich  is  common  enough  in  Carthagena  and 
Demerara,  in  both  of  which  there  are  lazarettoesf  for  patients 
afflicted  with  that  loathsome  disease,  does  not  seem  exist  on  the 
Isthmus.  El  coto^  or  goitre — the  enlargement  of  the  glands  of 
the  neck,  so  common  on  the  high  mountains  of  New  Granada 
— is  unknown  on  the  Isthmus. 

* Bebeerine,  the  aetivc  prineiple  cxtraet.ed  from  the  seeds  and  bark  of 
Neetaiidra  llodioci,  tlie  Greeulieart  or  Sipiii,  of  Demerara,  Is  also  a powerful 
anti-])eriodic.  The  tree  belongs  to  the  class  and  order  Dodecandria  Mono- 
gynia,  and  tlic  family  Lauraceiu. 

t On  Ticrra  ILmba,  near  the  former,  and  at  Accawccny  Creek,  rcmcroou 
lliver,  in  the  latter. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


61 


The  Foeest. 

The  Isthmus  of  Darien  is  covered  throughout  -with  a dense 
and  trackless  forest,  extending  from  the  summits  of  the  highest 
mountains  to  the  very  edge  of  the  sea,  and  broken  only  by  the 
courses  of  the  rivers.  This  renders  it  impossible  to  see  more 
than  a few  yards  ahead,  and  constitutes  the  greatest  difficulty 
the  explorer  has  to  contend  with.  The  trees  grow  in  a soil  of 
great  depth,  and  of  such  amazing  fertility  that  it  would  serve 
for  manure  for  other  lands.  They  are  of  all  sizes,  from  30  to 
150  ft.  in  height,  and  have  between  them  a multitude  of  shrubs 
and  a close  undergrowth  of  herbaceous  plants.  The  trees  sup- 
port numerous  trailing  vines  and  creepers,  known  by  the  names 
of  vehucos,  lianas,  nibbees  (in  Demerara),  and  bushropes  (in  the 
West  Indies).  These  ascend  to  their  tops  and  fall  in  matted 
festoons,  forming  a perpendicular  wall  of  foliage,  which  would 
delight  the  eye  of  an  artist,  but  would  totally  impede  the  opera- 
tions of  the  surveyor.  Orchidem  and  other  parasitic  plants,  in 
great  numbers  and  variety  of  form,  cling  to  tlieir  trunks,  en- 
circling them  with  flowers  of  every  hue. 

Of  palms,  the  most  abundant  are  the  troolies  (Manicaria 
saccifera),  itas  or  morichis  (Mauritia  flexuosa),  and  other  fan 
palms,  vernacularly  known  as  guagaras^  which  occupy  the 
greater  part  of  the  space  between  the  tall  trees.  Another  palm 
very  common  is  the  corozo  Colorado,  sillico,  or  hone  palm  (Elais 
melanococca),  which  yields  an  oil  identical  with  the  palm  oil  of 
commerce,  the  produce  of  its  African  congener,  Elais  Guineensis. 
The  principal  timber  trees  are  cedar  (Idea  altissima)  ; mahogany 
(Swietenia  mahogani)  ; lignum  vitae,  or  guayacan  (Guaiacum 
officinale)  ; silk-cotton  (Bombax  ceiba)  ; espave  (Anacardium 
rhinocarpus)  ; bamboo  (Bambusa  arundinata) ; bullet  tree  (Mi- 
musops  sp.) ; crabwood  (Carapa  Guianensis)  ; ebony  (Diospyros 
sp.)  ; hobo  (Spondias  lutea) ; iron  wood  (Ybera  pnterana) ; 
laurel  (Cordia  gerascanthus)  ; locust,  carob,  or  algarrobo  (Hy- 
mengea  courbaril)  ; mora  (Mora  excelsa) ; quiebra  hacha,  or  break- 
axe  (Hymensea  pentaphylla) ; quira  (Platymiscium  polysta- 
chyum) ; Tonquin-bean  tree  (Coumourouma  odorata)  ; and  a 
very  durable  wood  called  yaya.  The  quipo  tree  is  also  very  com- 
mon : it  grows  to  a height  of  70  or  80  ft.,  perfectly  straight,  and 
has  no  branches  except  at  the  top ; the  bark  is  very  thin,  and 
the  wood  quite  white  and  extremely  hard ; it  is,  perhaps,  the 
caoba  of  Spanish  and  the  bastard  mahogany  of  English  wood- 
cutters. 

Monkeys,  perezas,  or  sloths,  dantas,  machos  del  monte,  or 
tapirs,  a small  deer  like  the  wirribocerra  of  Mexico,  the  sayno. 


G2 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


liavall,  cafuclii,  warrco,  or  wliitc-lippcd  ])eccari  (Dicotylcs 
la])iatus),  and  tlic  tatal)ro,  or  collared  })cccari  (Dicotyles  tor- 
qnatus),  coiiejos,  or  rabbits,  and  s(|uirj’els  are  plentiful.  Amongst 
the  birds  are  flamingos,  or  curri-curris,  ])arrots,  j)igeons,  hum- 
ming-birds, and  three  kinds  of  wild  turkey  of  large  size,  viz.,  the 
giiam,  giian,  pava  del  monte,  or  crested  wild  turkey  (Penelope 
cristata)  ; the  powhi,  or  crested  curassow  (Craalector),  and  tlic 
powhi  de  piedra  ("Ourax  pauxi). 

The  Istitimus  oh  Canton  of  Dahten. 

This  Isthmus,  whicli  was  at  one  time  a separate  province,  was 
afterwards  reduced  to  the  status  of  a canton  of  the  ])rovince  of 
Panama,  which  it  continued  to  be  until  the  2nd  of  June,  1840, 
when,  in  consequence  of  the  representations  of  Anselmo  Ihneda, 
the  Governor  of  Panama,  it  was  constituted  a territory,  under  a 
prefect  with  a salary  of  1500  dollars  a year.  On  the  7th  of 
August,  1847,  its  boundaries  were  fixed  as  already  given.  By 
another  decree,  dated  Bogota,  June  22nd,  1850,  it  was  again 
reduced  to  the  status  of  a canton,  under  a jefe  politico,  or  chief 
of  police,  with  a salary  of  500  dollars  per  annum. 

Its  length  is  about  210  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  90,  and  its 
narrowest  2:>art,  from  Chepo  mouth  to  Mandinga  Bay,  27  miles. 

South  Darien. 

The  following  was  the  population  of  the  South  of  Darien  for 
the  years  1822,  1843,  and  1851 : — 

1822.  1813.  1851. 


Yavisa,  the  capital 

341 

332 

287 

Santa  Maria  . . 

245 

204 

145 

Cliapigana  . . . 

162 

296 

268 

Pinogana  . . . 

146 

142 

164 

Tucuti  .... 

113 

155 

106 

Pichichi^  . . . 

100 

abandoned. 

Molineca  . . . 

35 

78 

77 

Cana  .... 

30 

abandoned. 

Garachine  . . . 

• • • • . • 

162 

Chimanf  . . . 

... 

276 

1172  1207  1485 


* Ficliiclii,  where  there  was  a fort,  was  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Chu- 
([uanaqua,  between  its  mouth  and  Yavisa.  A negro,  named  Mareellino,  who 
was  alive  in  1849,  was  the  last  survivor  of  its  former  inhabitants. 

I Chirnari,  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  river  Chiman,  in  the  Gulf  of  Panama, 
although  ill  Darien,  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  canton  of  Taboga. 


ISTHMUS  OP  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


63 


Biruquete. 

The  coast  of  tlie  extreme  south  of  Darien,  from  Garachine  to 
Cupica  Bay,  and  the  Cordillera  inland  of  it,  were  formerly 
called  Biruquete,  and,  about  thirty  years  ago,  constituted  a 
district,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a corregidor,  with  the  title  of 
the  Oorregimiento  of  Jurador;  but  of  late  years  this  has  been 
completely  neglected.  The  only  settlements  in  it  are  a few 
huts  at  the  Jurador  moutli  and  on  the  Nerqua  and  Chupipi, 
twelve  huts  at  Paracuchichi  mouth,  inhabited  by  negroes  and 
samboes  from  Panama  and  a few  Jamaica  men,  and  a little 
hamlet  at  Cupica.  It  was  once  the  resort  of  deserters,  qimar- 
rones,  or  runaway  slaves,  and  fugitive  criminals  from  Panama. 
It  was  to  this  coast  that  the  Indians  of  the  north  of  Darien 
directed  Pizarro,  telling  him  to  go  to  Biruquete  (probably  mean- 
ing “ the  southern  country  ”)  to  search  for  gold ; and  it  was 
from  the  wrong  application  of  the  name  of  Biru  that  that  of 
Peru  was  derived.  On  the  Biru,  which  was  then  governed  by 
the  cacique  Biru,  was  the  village  the  inhabitants  of  which  he 
named  Pueblo  Quemado  or  burnt  people.  He  gave  the  river 
the  name  of  Rio  de  Hambre,  or  hunger  river,  and  it  is  now 
called  the  Jurador.  Biruquete  formerly  included  all  the  country 
from  the  Atrato  and  the  San  J uan  to  the  Pacific,  but  the  town 
of  the  Noanama  Indians  on  the  San  Juan  ; but  all  to  the  south 
of  Cupica  is  now  in  the  province  of  Chocd.  Noanama,  the 
people  of  which  still  retain  their  own  language,  has  a population 
of  3510.  Biruquete  was  visited  successively  by  Vasco  Nunez, 
Andagoya,  Pizarro,  and  Almagro.  It  includes  the  lines  for  a 
ship  canal  from  the  Atrato  and  Truando  to  the  Paracuchichi, 
and  from  the  Atrato  and  Napipi  to  the  Cupica,  which  were 
surveyed,  but  found  to  be  impracticable.  By  some  this  narrow 
tract  between  the  Atrato  and  the  Pacific  is  called  the  Isthmus 
of  Chocd. 

River  Tuyea.* 

The  Tuyra,  Rio  Grande,  or  Santa  Maria,  is  the  largest  of  the 
rivers  of  Darien,  the  Atrato  being  included  in  the  province  of 
Chocd.  It  traverses  the  greatest  part  of  the  space  between  the 
Atrato  and  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  running  from  E.S.E.  to 
W.N.W.  Its  head-waters  are  separated  from  the  valley  of  the 
Atrato  by  the  Sierra  de  Maly,  and  the  Cerro  del  Espiritu  Santo. f 

^ It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Tuyra  is  the  name  of  the  devil  in  the  languages 
of  both  the  Darien  and  Caribisce  Indians,  by  whieli  tribes  he  was  formerly 
worshipped. 

f Its  entire  course  may  be  estimated  at  94  miles. 


G4 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


Inside  of  Boca  Chica  and  Boca  Grande,  tlie  months  by  wlilcli 
it  discharges  itself  into  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  it  forms  a magni- 
ficent estuary  extending  eight  miles  up,  witli  an  average  width 
of  three  miles,  and  great  deptli  of  water.  Into  this  fall  the 
Savana  on  the  N.  and  the  Seteganti*  on  the  S.  Inside  Boca 
Cliica  and  opposite  tlie  Savana  mouth,  there  is  a settlement, 
called  La  Palma,  established  in  1851  by  Marcado  and  Damian 
Gonzales.  The  former  was  a native  of  Chocb,  whose  father  had 
been  canoe-man  to  Captain  Cochrane  on  his  journey  in  Chocb  in 
1824.  Seven  miles  above  Boca  Chica  is  the  mouth  of  the 
Seteganti,  an  uninhabited  river : about  a century  ago,  thei’e 
was  an  Indian  village  there.  On  the  bank  of  this  river  a negro 
of  Chapigana  was  murdered  in  1849  by  some  person,  who 
chopped  him  in  the  back  of  the  head  with  a machete  or  bush 
cutlass,  just  as  he  was  about  to  jump  across  it,  he  having  j)re- 
viously  flung  his  bundle  over  to  the  opposite  bank. 

Chapigana  Village. 

Two  miles  above  Seteganti  mouth  is  the  village  of  Chapigana, 
which  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  made  his  head-quarters  after  the 
discovery  of  the  Pacific.  The  ]^eople  are  all  negroes,  and  are 
governed  by  two  corregidors.  Mr.  Andrew  Ilossack,  commonly 
called  Don  Andres,  an  Inverness  man,  resided  there  for  many 
years,  and  carried  on  wood-cutting  and  boat-building,  having 
always  kept  a sufficient  number  of  hands  at  work,  by  means  of 
a system  by  which  he  held  many  of  the  men  of  the  village  in 
bondage.  It  consisted  in  giving  large  credit  to  all  comers  for 
aguardiente,  anisado  (a  liquor  impregnated  with  oil  of  aniseed, 
like  the  rachi  of  the  Greeks),  brandy,  tobacco,  &c.,  and  then 
making  a sudden  demand  for  payment,  and  obtaining  a decree 
obliging  them  to  pay  off  the  debt  in  labour,  with  the  alternative 
of  the  stocks,  if  recusant.  The  same  system  was  carried  on  in 
Molineca  by  Gregorio,  and  in  Pinogana  by  Requero.  It  is  pro- 
bably common  in  that  part  of  South  America,  for  when,  in 
1832,  the  government  of  Equador  sent  a body  of  political 
offenders  and  convicts  to  Charles  Island,  one  of  the  Galapagos, 
under  the  governorship  of  Don  Jose  Vilamil,  that  gentleman 
opened  a store  in  which,  in  lieu  of  money,  he  demanded  for  his 
goods  mortgages  on  the  crops  grown  by  the  settlers ; but  the 
plan  ended  badly,  for,  three  years  afterwards,  the  people 
exasperated  at  his  rapacity  chopped  him  down  with  their 
machetes.  During  the  author’s  visit  to  Darien  in  1849  and  1850 
his  movements  were  free,  owing  to  the  absence  at  that  time  of 

* Tills  word  is  compounded  of  Sete^  a species  of  willow  that  grows  there- 
abouts, f/any  a village,  aud  tij  a river. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


65 


Don  Andres  ; but  in  1851  that  gentleman  caused  his  detention 
at  Chapigana  for  three  weeks,  by  secretly  forbidding  the  people 
to  hire  him  a canoe.  For  a few  years  he  was  in  partnership 
with  another  Inverness  man,  named  Kobert  Nelson,*  but  the 
latter  left  Darien  several  years  ago. 

A Portuguese,  named  Jose  Maria  Troncoso,  but  commonly 
called  Don  Pepe  el  Niopo  (the  European),  wlio  had  been  a 
sailor  in  a slaver  trading  between  St.  Paul  de  Loando  and 
Brazil,  resides  there,  and  carries  most  of  the  traffic  between 
Chapigana  and  Panama  in  his  bongo.  The  village  is  partly 
situated  on  a very  small  swamp,  which  is  almost  the  only  one  in 
Darien  ; close  behind  it  is  a well  of  good  water,  and  behind  that 
a hill  with  a running  stream.  At  this  place,  on  a hillock  just 
behind  Hossack’s  house,  is  a ruined  fort ; there  are  also  ruins  of 
forts  on  the  top  of  Boca  Chica  Island,  and  at  Beal  de  Santa 
Maria,  and  Yavisa. 

La  Marea  Eiver.  Six  miles  higher  up,  also  on  the  south 
bank,  is  the  mouth  of  La  Marea,  at  the  head  of  which  the 
Spaniards  once  worked  a gold  mine.  Dr.  Lebreton,  a physician 
of  Panama,  M.  le  Boi,  and  M.  Plellert,  who  went  up  to  its  head, 
state  that  gold  exists  in  large  quantities  in  the  pozos  or  wells  in 
which  it  has  its  sources. 

Bio  Balsas  opens  two  miles  higher  up.  On  separate 
branches  of  it  are  the  village  of  Tucuti  and  the  hamlet  of 
Camoganti,  near  which  there  are  placeres  or  gold  washings. 
This  river  was  so  named  by  Vasco  Nunez  because  he  constructed 
rafts  on  it. 

Chuquanaqua  Biver.  Sixteen  miles  above  Bio  Balsas,  or 
thirty-three  miles  above  Boca  Chica,  the  Chuquanaqua  opens 
on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Tuyra,  and  is  about  120  ft.  wide  at  its 
mouth.  This  very  tortuous  river  rises  somewhere  to  the  W. 
of  Navagandi  mountain,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the 
Chepo,  which  runs  in  the  opposite  direction.  From  its  head 
it  has  a S.  by  E.  course  to  Yavisa,  where  it  bends  to  the  N.W. 
for  three  miles  to  the  Tuyra.  The  distance  from  its  head 
to  Yavisa,  in  a direct  line,  is  47  miles  : by  the  windings 
of  the  river,  the  reaches  of  which  approach  every  point 
of  the  compass,  it  must  be  considerably  over  100  miles.  The 
distance  from  Sucubti  mouth  to  Yavisa,  in  a straight  line,  is 
thirty-eight  miles.  From  its  mouth  to  the  first  falls,  eighteen 
miles  above  Yavisa,  it  has  a pretty  uniform  depth  of  three 
fathoms,  and  an  average  width  of  70  ft.  Higher  up  it  is 
much  obstructed  by  ledges,  bars,  and  rocks.  The  principal 
affluents  on  the  W.  are  the  Izquinti,  Artuganti,  La  Paz,  Meteti, 

Not  the  Robert  Nelson  who,  witli  Mr.  Kennisb,  guided  Commander 
Prevost. 

F 


GO 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


Chev'miciiii,  wliicli  rise  in  tlie  ridi^e  l)et\veeii  it  and  tlie 
Savana.  Tlie  tributaries,  Avliicli  ()])en  on  its  E.  bank,  rise  from 
tlie  Eacilic  slojie  of  the  Cordillera  that  runs  close  to  the  Atlantic 
coast.  From  its  source  down  they  are  named  the  Ushicapanti, 
Arquiati,  Chieti,  Moreti,  Sucubti,  the  united  streams  of  the 
Chueti  and  Tidmganti,  Ucurganti,  Tiujiiesa,  Ticliibucua,  Tupisa, 
and  Yavisa.  From  the  head  of  the  Chu([uanaqua  there  is  a 
trail  to  Cuiquiiiupti,  an  affluent  of  the  Cauasas,  which  falls  into 
the  upper  ])art  of  the  Chepo. 

The  Uslucapanti  was  reached  by  Commander  JTevost,  of 
II.M.S.  Virago^  on  his  misguided  and  unsuccessfid  attempt  to 
cross  the  Isthmus  from  December  20,  1853,  to  January  7, 
1854.* 

At  the  close  of  the  last  century  there  was  a small  settlement 
on  the  Arquiati,  the  cacique  of  which  was  named  Juan  de  Dios 
Alcedo;  but  the  Indians,  according  to  their  custom,  abandoned 
it  when  it  was  found  out  by  the  S})aniards.f  The  Moreti  and 
Sucubti  will  be  referred  to  in  the  account  of  the  canal  line, 
which  will  follow  the  bed  of  the  latter. 

From  the  Chueti,  which  falls  into  the  Chuquaiiaqua,  eleven 
miles  S.S.E.  of  the  Sucubti,  there  is  a scarcely  recognisable 
trail  across  the  Cordillera  to  a point  high  up  the  Aglatumati, 
that  falls  into  Caledonia  Bay,  on  the  Atlantic.  The  author  once 
crossed  in  that  line, but  found  the  Cordillera  there  to  be  higher  than 
between  the  Sucubti  and  the  Aglatumati.  This  is  the  so-called 
Pass  of  Tubuganti,  which  is  thus  noticed  by  AVilliam  Patterson 
in  his  Second  Proposals  In  our  passage  by  land  from 
Caledonia  Harbour’  (he  means  Port  Escoces)  we  have  six 
leagues  of  very  good  way  to  a place  called  Swetee  ” (Chueti)  ; 

from  Swetee  to  Tubugantee  we  have  between  two  and  three 
leagues,  not  so  passable,  by  reason  of  the  windings  of  the  river 
which  must  often  be  passed  and  repassed.  At  Tubugantee 
there  are  ten  feet  of  high  water,  and  so  not  less  in  the  river  till 
it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Ballona”  (San  Miguel).  This  we  com- 
monly call  the  Pass  of  Tubugantee.” 

Yaratuba,  a place  about  20  miles  S.AV . of  F ort  St.  Andrew, 
where  a skirmish  took  place  on  the  15th  of  February,  1700,  be- 
tween the  Scotch  colonists  under  Captain  Campbell,  of  Finab,  and 
a body  of  negroes,  mulattoes  and  Indians,  sent  from  Panama  and 

* lloss,  Dr.,  II.M.S.  Virago,  llcpori  of  the  Exploring  Party  sent  to  cross 
the  Tstliiuus  of  Darien,  in  the  Vanama  Herald,  January,  185  i<;  and  in  a 
])ainp]ilet  entitled  “ Over  Darien. — llcports  of  the  Mismanaged  Darien  Expe- 
dition.” 

1 I'his  was,  liowever,  more  probably  another  Ai'cpiiati,  one  of  the  southern 
tributaries  of  the  Tuyra, 


ISTHMUS  OP  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


67 


Santa  Maria  up  the  Cliuquanaqua  to  reinforce  Gen.  Don  Juan 
Pimienta,  the  Governor  of  Carthagena,  who  was  then  besieging 
Fort  St.  Andrew,  was  probably  on  the  Tubuganti. 

Indians  pass  from  Tuquesa  to  Pito,  and  from  Tupisa  to  Gandi 
or  Acanti,  in  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  in  four  days.  They  do  not 
travel  to  the  south  of  Tupisa ; nor  do  the  Granadians  venture  to 
trespass  north  of  the  Yavisa.  With  the  exception  of  the  Grana- 
dian town  of  Yavisa,  the  entire  course  of  the  Cliuquanaqua  itself 
is  supposed  to  be  uninhabited,  the  few  settlements  of  the  Indians 
being  on  some  of  its  branches. 

Yavisa,*"  the  cabecera  or  capital  of  the  canton,  and  residence 
of  the  Jefe  Politico,  Don  Manuel  Borbua,  is  situated  on  a penin- 
sula formed  by  a bend  of  the  Cliuquanaqua  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  Yavisa.  The  houses  are  of  bamboo,  thatched  with  palm 
leaves.  It  has  a fort  in  good  preservation.  There  are  a few 
cattle  in  the  small  plain  on  which  the  town  is  built,  and  which 
is  cleared  to  the  foot  of  the  mountain  behind  it.  This  plain  is 
50  ft.  or  more  above  the  river,  the  banks  of  which  are  there  quite 
precipitous.  Walking  rapidly  up  and  down  one  very  dark  night 
endeavouring  to  cool  himself  during  the  oppressive  heat  that 
precedes  a thunder-storm  in  that  climate,  the  author  approached 
too  near  the  edge  of  the  bank  and  toppled  over,  striking  his  side, 
in  falling,  against  a projecting  point.  The  river  being  flooded, 
he  barely  touched  the  bottom,  and  swam  out  safely,  the  splash 
made  by  the  fall  having  frightened  the  alligators  away.  lie 
met  there  Mascareiio  and  Pedro  Louriano  Garvez,  two  very 
old  residents,  who  were  born  at  Fuerte  del  Principe,  on  the 
Savana,  and  were  brought  away  by  their  fathers,  who  were 
soldiers  there,  when  it  was  abandoned  in  1790.  They  said  that 
there  used  to  be  sometimes  400  soldiers  at  Principe,  and  that  on 
its  abandonment  its  garrison,  consisting  of  150  men,  was  sent  to 
Yavisa.  There  is  not  one  soldier  now  in  Yavisa. 

Dr.  Nicolas  Pereira  Gamba,  a lawyer,  now  of  Bogota,  was 
prefect  of  the  territory  from  1846  to  1848,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Don  Antonio  Baraya,  of  Bogota,  who  remained  until 
1850,  when  Darien  became  a canton,  upon  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  new  province  of  Azuero.  That  gentle- 
man, with  the  view  of  assisting  the  author  in  his  explorations 
towards  the  Atlantic  coast,  gave  him  a letter  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  a translation ; but  his  kind  intentions  were  of  no 
avail,  as  the  natives  had  such  a dread  of  the  Indians  that  he 
could  not  prevail  on  any  of  them  to  accompany  him,  and  had 
to  proceed  alone  as  before  : 

^ This  Indian  word  signifies  a maiden.’’ 

F 2 


G8 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAIIIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


“ Yavisa,  January  9,  1850. 

^M)EAii  Sir, — Dr.  Edward  Cidleii  proceeds  to  your  town  witli 
tlic  view  of  continuing  liis  explorations.  1 heg  you  will  he  kind 
enough  to  procure  liiin  the  men  that  he  re([ui]’es  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  his  journey,  whom  he  will  pay  for  their  services.  I 
hope  you  have  no  news. 

I remain  your  most  attentive  servant, 

Antonio  Daiiaya. 

“ The  Corregidor  of  Moliiieca.” 

Heal* * * §  de  Santa  IVIahia  is  situated  on  the  Tuyra,  just  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Pirre,  which  has  a very  short  course  from  a 
liigli  mountain  called  Cerro  Pirre,  and  falls  into  the  Tuyra  a 
little  above  the  Chuquanaqua,  hut  on  the  opposite  or  S.  hank. 
The  Governor  of  Panama  sent  to  this  village  for  confinement 
thirty  of  the  men  from  ] Liverpool,  who  took  Jhn’tohello,  in  1819, 
under  the  patriot  or  Colomhian  General,  Gregor  M‘Gregor,f 
and  who  were  afterwards  made  prisoners  upon  the  retaking  of 
that  place  by  Santa  Cruz  and  Alessandro  Lores.  Three  of 
them  were  killed  here,  and  Colonel  liafter  and  another  at 
Yavisa.  An  old  Indian  woman  of  Pinogana,  who  was  present 
Avhen  Rafter  and  his  companion  were  shot  by  Corporal  Rincon, 
besought  him  to  spare  them,  crying  out  por  el  amor  de  Dios, 
no  les  mata,”  (for  the  love  of  God,  don’t  kill  them).  Don 
jManuel  Gonzales,  a native  of  Spain,  who  was  in  Portobello 
when  it  was  retaken,  said  that  most  of  the  prisoners  were  con- 
fined in  the  large  housed  opposite  the  puerta  de  tierra  or  land  gate 
of  Panama,  which  latter  has  been  thrown  down  by  the  Railroad 
Company ; and  that  one  night,  a musket  rack  having  fallen 
down  and  alarmed  the  guard,  they  fired  and  killed  several 
of  them. 

Below  the  Pirre  is  the  site  of  the  old  town,  which  was  taken 
by  the  Buccaneers  in  1680,§  on  wdiich  occasion  they  found  only 
3 cwt.  of  the  gold  of  Cana,  the  rest  having  just  been  shipped 
to  Panama.  It  w^as  again  sacked  in  1685,  1702,  and  1712,  by 
the  Buccaneers.  In  1724  and  1750  the  Indians  massacred  the 
inhabitants. 

* Ileal  means  “ a camp  and  also  a silver  coin,  worth  i^tli  of  a dollar,  or 
5d. ; but  the  real  of  Spain  is  only  half  the  size  and  value  of  that  of  South 
America,  being  only  of  a dollar : the  adjective  real  signifies  “royal.” 

f He  afterwards  became  Cacique  of  Poyais,  in  the  Mosquito  territory,  and 
raised  a large  sum  in  London  for  the  colonisation  of  Poyais  on  bonds  signed 
by  himself  alone. 

I I'his  house  l)clongcd  to  Gonzales,  and  afterwards  to  his  son-in-law,  Don 
tfuan  Feraud,  a Prcnchman. 

§ When  taken  in  1G80  by  Coxon,  Harris,  and  Swan,  Santa  Maria  had  a 
garrison  of  200  men,  but  was  defended  only  by  palisades. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


69 


Molineca,  up  to  which  the  tide  reaches,*  is  about  four 
miles  above  Santa  Maria.  From  the  other  bank  of  the  Tuyra 
there  is  a bush-path,  about  three  miles  long,  to  the  bank  of 
the  Chuquanaqua  opposite  Yavisa.  Along  this  path  the  Cedron 
{Simaha  cedron,  Planch,  Simarubacem),  said  to  be  the  best 
antidote  against  snake-bites,  grows  plentifully;  and  close  to 
the  same  path,  the  author  saw,  in  one  day,  great  numbers  of 
snakes  assembled  together  in  three  diderent  places. 

PiNOGANA.  Four  miles  above  Molineca  is  Pinogana,  the  last 
inhabited  place  on  the  Tuyra.  The  population  consists  of  164 
civilised  Indians  and  Samboes  (half  Indians  and  half  negroes). 
The  distance  from  Boca  Chica  to  Pinogana  is  forty-one  miles, 
and  the  journey  can  be  accomplished  in  two  tides.  During  the 
ebb  tide  it  is  usual  to  tie  the  boat  or  canoe  to  a tree  on  the 
bank.  Going  down  with  the  ebb,  the  passage  can  be  made  in 
one  tide. 

The  Tuyra,  above  the  confluence  of  the  Chuquanaqua  with 
it,  receives  on  the  same,  or  north  bank,  the  Huanacati,  Yapes. 
Pucro  (about  fifteen  miles  above  the  Chuquanaqua),  Paya,  Ma- 
tumaganti,  Punusa,  Tapanaca,  and  Nique.  Of  these  nothing 
is  known  except  that  there  are  a few  Indians  high  up  the  Pucro 
and  the  Paya.  The  author  learned  from  the  Indians  that  there 
are  two  ways  of  crossing  the  Cordillera  from  the  Pucro,  and 
two  from  the  Paya.  Pucro  is  a corruption  of  Pucurru,  the 
Indian  name  of  the  balsas  or  raft-wood  tree  {Ochroma  lagopus), 
which,  like  the  silk-cotton  tree  (Bombax  ceiba),  and  the  huge 
baobab  (Adansonia  digitata),  belongs  to  the  Linngean  class  and 
order  Monadelphia  Polyandria,  and  to  the  suborder  Bombaceas 
of  the  natural  family  Sterculiacese.  The  following  are  the 
passes : 

1.  One  day’s  journey  up  the  Pucro  is  the  mouth  of  the 
Tapaliza,  and  two  hours  up  the  latter  is  that  of  the  Mazaquia : 
from  thence  a journey  of  an  hour  and  a half  by  land  leads  to 
Parcaparca,  a stream  which  falls  into  the  Tiperri,  a branch  of 
the  Paya.  From  Tiperri  mouth  to  the  head  of  the  Paya  is  one 
day’s  journey,  and  from  the  latter  the  Cordillera  is  ascended  in 
four  hours.  At  its  foot  on  the  other  side  is  the  head  of  the 
Arquia,  in  the  course  of  which  is  the  lagoon  of  Tigre,  one  day’s 
journey  from  the  Tarena  channel  of  the  Atrato,  into  which,  six 
leagues  above  its  mouth,  the  Arquia  falls.  2.  One  day’s  journey 
up  the  Tapaliza  is  the  mouth  of  the  Apeyac ; in  one  day  up  the 
latter  the  Cordillera  is  reached,  and  can  be  crossed  in  one  day 
to  the  head  of  the  Tigre,  which  falls  into  the  lagoon  on  the 
Arquia.  3.  The  Paya  falls  into  the  Tuyra,  one  day’s  journey 


* But  tlie  tide  flows  tliere  only  for  one  or  two  hours. 


70 


TSTTTMTTS  OF  FAFIFN  AND  TITE  SITTF  CANAL. 


above  tliG  Pucro.  It  is  two  days  from  its  moiitli  to  its  licad, 
one  (lay  tlieiice  to  Cliacargoon  or  Tngar^ona  Aronntniii,  one  day 
to  its  foot  on  tlie  otlier  side,  one  day  tlience  to  the  Arcjuia,  and 
one  day  d(3wn  tlie  latter  to  tlie  Atrato.  The  liead  streams  of 
tlie  Paya  are  tlie  Tracuna,  and  Ucub(|nin.  In  Cliacai’^oon  there 
is  a rivniet,  called  Tiyaco,  which  contains  abundance  of  a very 
line  gold  dust  that  the  Indians  call  aasites.  Nortli  of  Chacai- 
goon  is  Ghistata  Mountain  which  has  a great  waterfall.  4.  One 
day  on  foot  up  the  bank  of  the  Tuggule,  a branch  of  tlu;  Paya, 
fartlier  to  the  south  or  right ; one  day  across  the  Cordillera  to 
the  head  of  the  Yo ; and  three  days  down  that  river  to  the 
Atrato,  one  day’s  jcnirney  above  its  mouth. 

AboA^e  Molineca,  on  the  same,  or  south  liank,  the  rivers  Clara, 
Uruti,  Aru/a  and  Arquiati,  Siluro,  Cupe  and  Jjieliza,  Papa  and 
Piedras,  Grande,  Escucha  Kuidos  (hear  the  noises),  Viejo  (old), 
Ijimon,  and  Cana  fall  into  the  Tuyra.  They  are  all  totally  un- 
inhabited, as  well  as  all  the  country  from  the  south  bank  of  the 
Tuyra  to  the  Pacific. 

In  171()  the  settlements  in  the  south  of  Darien  Avere : 1.  Santa 
Cruz  de  Cana,  Avhere  there  was  a large  population  of  Spaniards, 
negroes,  and  Indians  engaged  in  gold  mining.  2.  La  Concep- 
cion de  Sabalo.  3.  San  Miguel  de  Tayecua.  4.  San  Domingo 
de  Balsas.  5.  Santa  Maria.  6.  San  Jeronimo  de  Yavisa,  a Joc- 
ivhia  or  mission.  7.  San  Enrique  de  Capeti,  or  the  sleepy. 
8.  Santa  Cruz  de  Pucro.  9.  San  Juan  de  Tacaracuna,  and 
IMatarnati,  doctrinas  named  after  liills  in  the  vicinity.  10.  Se- 
teganti,  an  Indian  village,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  although 
under  subjection  to  the  Spaniards,  Avere  not  baptised.  Some 
time  after  1740  the  Spaniards  had  rancherias,  or  collections  of 
huts,  at  Nuestra  Seitora  del  Rosario,  on  the  Congo,  and  on  the 
riA^ers  Zahalos,  Balsas,  Uron,  Tapanaca,  Pucro,  Paparos  (phea- 
sants), Tuquesa,  Tupisa  and  Yavisa,  and  at  Chapigana.  About 
the  end  of  the  last  century,  the  fort  of  Real  de  Santa  Maria  Avas 
garrisoned  by  thirty-seven  soldiers,  and  had  six  pedreros,  or 
small  cannons.  On  the  Pirre  there  Avere  thirteen  Indian  fami- 
lies, instructed  by  a Dominican  priest ; and  at  Molineca  tAventy- 
three  families  and  a priest.  Ayuca,  four  leagues  above  Moli- 
neca, and  Yapeti,  three  turns  or  reaches  higher  up  the  Tuyra, 
Avere  uninhabited.  At  the  sources  of  the  Cupeti,  the  mouth  of 
which  is  seven  turns  aboA^e  that  of  the  Yapeti,  Avere  the  Paparos 
Indians,  Avho  held  no  communication  Avith  the  others,  and  Avere 
su]q)Osed  to  be  a mixed  race  of  Indians  and  negroes,  and  to 
consist  of  eighty  families.  Seven  turns  above  Cupeti,  the  river 
Y])eliza  o])ens.  On  the  Cupe,  one  of  the  tAvo  streams  that  form 
it,  there  Avas  a Jesuit  mission  consisting  of  forty  Indian  families; 
and  at  the  junction  of  the  tAVO,  the  Spaniards  once  had  a military 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


71 


post,  but  the  Indians  killed  all  the  soldiers.  From  the  embarca- 
dero  or  landing-place  on  the  Ypeliza,  three  days’  journey  above 
its  mouth,  it  was  half  a day’s  journey  by  land  to  Cana  : at  the 
landing-place  there  were  three  Indian  families.  At  Cana  there 
was  a fort  with  a sergeant  and  eight  soldiers.  The  inhabitants, 
most  of  whom  were  upwards  of  fifty  years  of  age,  were  engaged 
in  mining.  In  1780,  the  entire  population  of  South  Darien  was 
1339.  Before  that  time,  the  Indians,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  families  that  remained  in  Pinogana,  had  completely  aban- 
doned it. 

North  Darien. 

The  Atlantic  coast  and  the  country  for  eight  or  ten  miles 
iidand  is  very  sparsely  inhabited  by  the  Darien,  San  Bias,  or 
Mandinga  Indians,  who  call  themselves  Tooleh* — a word  signi- 
fying  people.”  This  tribe  was  never  subdued  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  its  independence  was  recognised  by  the  Government  of  New 
Granada  about  the  year  1843.t  The  Darien  Indians  have 
always  opposed  every  attempt  to  penetrate  their  country,  or  even 
to  land  on  the  coast.  They  do  not  allow  any  official  or  citizen 
of  New  Granada  to  reside  in  their  territory,  nor  do  they  permit 
any  of  the  people  of  the  Granadian  villages  in  the  south  to  cross 
over  towards  the  Atlantic,  to  which  side  they  strictly  confine 
themselves,  claiming  no  part  of  the  Isthmus  south  of  the  upper 
courses  of  the  Chepo  and  Chuquanaqua.  So  severe  have  they 
been  on  trespassers  that,  in  1850,  they  killed  four  negroes  whom 
they  found  fishing  too  high  up  the  Chiman  ; and  two  years 
later  they  killed  five  negroes  whom  they  caught  hunting  within 
their  territory.  They  ahvays  bore  great  animosity  to  the 
Spaniards,  and  used  to  make  it  a point  to  kill  any  of  that  nation 
that  happened  to  fall  into  their  hands.  They  were  very  friendly 
of  old  to  the  Buccaneers,  whose  allies  they  were  in  many  incur- 
sions against  the  Spaniards.  They  are  at  present  very  friendly 
to  the  English  and  Americans,  hut  nevertheless  do  not  permit  them 
to  land,  on  the  coast.  As  soon  as  a vessel  anchors  it  is  boarded  by 
the  traders,  who  bring  off  their  produce  themselves,  and  do  not 
allow  the  captain  or  crew  to  land.  They  carry  on  a considerable 
trade  in  cocoa-nuts,  cocoa-nut  oil,  cocoa  (Theobroma  cacao), 
cotton  and  grass  hammocks,  and  canoes  of  calli-calli,  a red  wood 
like  cedar,  which  withstands  the  attacks  of  all  insects,  and  bears 
wear  and  tear  better  than  mahogany.  They  also  dispose  of  large 
quantities  of  carey,  careta,  or  tortoise-shell,  caoutchouc,  and 

* But  those  dwelling  on  the  tributaries  of  the  Chuquanaqua  are  called 
Cunas  or  Chucunas. 

f Tbe  independence  of  the  Goahiros,  who  live  inland  of  Bio  La  Hacha,  was 
recognised  at  the  same  time. 


72 


ISTHMUS  OF  UAHTEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


tagiia,  aiith,  or  vegetable  ivory,  wlilcli  is  tlie  liard  ;ill)iiiniiioiis 
kernel  of  Pliytelephas  inacrocarpa,  a (lia'uious  steinless  ])alni.* 

Their  small  settlements  are  situated,  at  great  distanees  from  one 
another,  at  the  months  of  the  rivers  ^landinga,  Carti  (hiico,  ( ’arti, 
or  cedar,  llio  Diahlo,  llio  Azucar,  Concepcion,  l^Iayon  (irandc*, 
Playon  Chico,  Rio  ]\Ionos,  Pitgandi,  Kweetce,  or  Mosrpntos,  Pii- 
trigandi,  Navagandi,  Sassardi,  Carreto,  Gandi,  Tripogandi,  d'utu- 
mati,  and  Tarena,  which  fall  into  the  Atlantic  from  N.W.  to  S.E., 
or  from  Cape  San  Plas  to  the  Atrato.  Their  settlements  inland 
arc  near  the  sources  of  the  Chepo,  Uslueapanti,  INIoreti,  Asnati, 
Sucuhti,  Chueti,  Tuhuganti,  Ucurganti,  Tuquesa,  Tu])isa,  Pucro, 
and  Paya,  which  rise  on  the  Pacific  sloj)C  of  the  Cordillera. 
There  are  also  the  villages  of  Agla  and  Arquia,  three  or  four 
miles  from  the  Atlantic.  During  the  season  in  which  they 
strike  the  hawkshill  turtle  (Chelone  imhricata)t  a few  huts  are 
occu])icd  hy  them  on  some  of  the  coral  cays  with  which  the 
coast  is  fringed. 

Allowing  a population  of  100  souls,  on  an  average,  for  each 
of  the  nineteen  coast  villages,  and  also  for  Agla  and  Anpiia,  and 
00  soids  for  each  of  the  twelve  inland  settlements,  the  total 
})0])ulation  would  he  2800,  which  is  prohahly  above  rather  than 
under  the  actual  number  at  jrresent ; hut,  in  1747,  Don  Joaquin 
Valcarcel  de  Miranda,  Governor  of  Darien,  estimated  the  popu- 
lation at  5000  families. 

From  Cape  San  Bias  to  the  Atrato  not  one  single  patch  of 
cultivated  or  cleared  land  is  to  he  seen,  either  on  the  coast  or 
the  mountains. 

At  Mandinga,  in  1852,  the  chief  was  John  Bull.  It  must  he 
observed  that  two  or  three  of  the  traders  in  each  settlement 
adopt  English  or  Spanish  names,  as  the  Indians  have  so  great  a 
reluctance  to  tell  their  own  names,  that,  when  one  of  tliem  is 
asked,  ^Mki  peynooka?”  (What’s  your  name?),  he  invariably 
replies,  Nooka  chuli  ” (I  have  no  name),  meaning,  perhaps,  no 
adopted  name.  Carti  Chico  is  a small  place,  three  miles  east  of 
Mandinga.  Carti,  or  cedar  river,  in  Mandinga  Bay,  nine  miles 
east  of  Mandinga  River,  was  the  residence  of  the  oldest  chief, 
Caldgwa,  who  was  about  100  years  of  age.  The  traders  were 
Vicuna,  William,  and  Tom  Dadd.  Vicuna,  John  Bull,  and 
Campbell,  who  lived  at  Yantopoo,  an  island  opposite  Carti,  each 
of  whom  was  nearly  100  years  of  age,  were  present  at  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Spaniards,  in  1787,  at 

* A full  account  of  this  interesting  tribe,  with  a copious  vocabulary  of 
their  language,  will  l)e  found  in  the  TransacMons  of  the  Ethnological  Society 
of  London.  New  Series.  Vol.  vi.,  Murray,  1868. 

f Tills  is  tlie  species  most  in  request  for  its  carapace,  or  dorsal  buckler,  the 
horny  plates  of  which  arc  known  as  tortoise-shell. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAETEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


73 


Caledonia  Harbour  and  Portobello.  John  Bull  was  baptised  at 
Portobello,  the  chief  of  police  there  being  his  godfather.  Camp- 
bell, notwithstanding  his  great  age,  was  able  to  walk  about,  and 
was  quite  clear  in  his  intellect.  He  asked  the  author  to  pre- 
scribe for  his  daughter,  and  wanted  some  vaccine  lymph,  which 
he  sent  him  from  Navy  Bay.  Carti  is  the  largest  of  the  settle- 
ments, and  may  have  a population  of  200.  Bio  Diablo,  or  devil 
river,  the  largest  village  next  to  Carti,  has  about  forty  huts. 
The  chief  was  named  Napa,  and  the  traders  were  Story  and 
Jack  Bragg.  At  Azucar,  or  sugar  river,  the  chief  man  was 
Crosby.  Playon  Grande  had  about  thirty  huts.  The  traders 
were  William  Shephard  and  Tom  Taylor.  The  sea-beacli  is  four 
miles  long,  and  lined  with  cocoa-nut  trees,  which  grow  along  the 
coast  all  the  way  from  thence  to  Putrigandi. 

Putrigandi  had  about  twenty-five  huts.  The  trader  there 
was  Julian  or  William,  who  was  very  friendly  and  desirous  of 
learnino;  a little  English.  He  also  wished  to  have  names  mven 
to  his  sons,  and  seemed  to  take  much  interest  in  the  account  the 
author  gave  him  of  the  Indians  of  Guiana  and  Venezuela.  On 
the  way  from  Sassardi  to  this  place,  the  boat  the  author  was  in 
was  followed  by  a large  canoe  with  ten  paddlers  and  some  men 
armed  with  muskets,  who  fired  several  volleys.  As  they  were 
pulling  directly  towards  him,  he  thought  they  might  be  coming 
to  kill  him  on  account  of  the  propositions  he  had  made  about 
a canal  across  the  Isthmus ; but,  upon  asking  one  of  the 
Indians  in  the  boat  what  they  were  firing  for,  he  replied, 

quenchaqua  Tule  tumati  poorkweesa”  (one  great  Indian  is 
dead),  which  explained  the  matter.  Soon  afterwards  the  canoe 
steered  into  Navagandi.  There  are  a few  huts  on  a sandy  spot 
on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Navagandi  or  Mona,  and  six  or  seven 
miles  up  the  river  is  a settlement.  Manchineel  trees  are 
abundant  in  the  vicinity. 

Sassardi,  at  the  N.W.  extremity  of  Caledonia  Harbour  and  the 
channel  of  Sassardi  had  eighteen  huts  and  about  fifty  inhabitants. 
The  principal  trader  was  Denis,  who  had  great  influence,  and 
caused  Gisborne  and  Forde  to  be  arrested  and  sent  back  to  their 
vessel  the  day  after  they  landed  in  June,  1852.  A fortnight 
afterwards  the  author  arrived  in  Caledonia  Harbour  and  sent  a 
message  to  him,  whereupon  he  came  down  with  about  forty 
men,  and  told  him  of  the  landing  of  Gisborne  and  Forde 
with  two  sailors.  The  author  endeavoured  to  get  his  consent  to 
the  survey  of  the  route  and  the  cutting  of  a canal,  but  he 
would  not  entertain  the  proposition,  and  bid  him  tell  the  Queen 
of  England  not  to  send  any  of  her  people  to  the  coast.  He  was 
very  friendly,  however,  called  him  aya  nugueti”  (good  friend), 
and  came  in  his  boat  to  Sassardi,  where  he  gave  names  to  his 


74 


I.STTTMTJS  OF  FAFIEN  ANT)  TITE  RITTP  CANAL. 


two  sons,  wlioni  lie  ])roinisc‘(l  to  lot  liiin  take  to  Kurland  on  liis 
next  visit.  JIo  ovon  offorcd  to  i!;ivo  liiin  a passage  in  a oanoo  to 
Navy  I>ay,  but  afterwards  said  lie  oonld  not  ii;ot  ))addlors.  4 lie 
resnlt  of  several  discussions  on  tlic  canal  (jnestion  was  that  lie 
])roniiscd  to  oiler  no  ojiposition  if  tlie  old  men  of  the  otlu'r 
settlements  consented  to  allow  foi*eii»;ners  to  come  and  cut  Ji 
canal ; and  lie  advised  the  author  to  call  a formal  meeting  of  the 
old  men  to  consider  the  matter.  »lohn  Hull,  the  oldest  man  in 
the  village,  was  then  sick  and  could  not  be  consnlled.  At  this 
time  an  American  yacht,  and  a schooner  from  the  Atrato, 
belonging  to  Fanstino,  called  in. 

When  the  expedition  of  1854  ari’ived  in  (kdedonia  Harbour, 
Denis  acted  as  spokesman  for  the  Indians,  and  gave  permission 
to  the  engineers  to  survey  the  line,  jiromising  that  they  would 
not  be  molested,  as  he  had  jiromised  Jdeutenant  Strain,  U.S.N., 
Avho  landed  two  days  before  Gisborne’s  arrival.  Although  he 
offered  no  ojiposition,  and  did  all  that  was  asked  of  him,  Gisborne 
used  to  s])eak  very  harshly  to  him,  and  at  last  threatened  to  have 
him  hanged.  To  this  threat  Denis  made  no  rejily,  but  Sassardi 
village  was  immediately  abandoned,  and  Denis  was  no  longer  to 
be  seen.  Soon  afterwards,  Gisborne  and  three  others,  accomj)anied 
by  llobinson,  the  Secretary  of  the  old  chief  of  San  Bias,  and 
another  Indian,  wlio  was  the  guide,  left  Caledonia  for  the 
Savana.  They  went  first  to  Sucubti,  which  had  been  burned 
and  abandoned  upon  Strain’s  approaching  it,  fifteen  days  before 
their  arrival.  Then  they  proceeded  to  Moreti,  where  they  were 
detained,  by  order  of  Denis,  in  the  house  of  the  very  men  who 
had  murdered  four  sailors  of  Commander  Prevost’s  party  five 
weeks  before.  Learning,  fortunately  in  time,  that  Denis  had 
arranged  with  the  Chief  of  Moreti  that  Gisborne  and  party 
were  to  be  murdered  there,  tlie  author  hastened  to  Sassardi, 
where  he  found  all  the  houses  completely  empty  and  open,  with 
the  exception  of  the  upper  room  in  Denis’s  house,  the  door  of 
which  w^as  shut.  Having  shouted  repeatedly,  Denis  at  last 
came  out,  and  in  an  angry  voice  asked  what  he  wanted.  Upon 
hearing  the  purport  of  his  visit,  Denis  at  once  admitted  that 
Gisborne  and  party  were  to  be  killed,  and  chuckled  with  satis- 
faction at  the  idea.  After  a long  pow-wow,  in  which  he  dis- 
])layed  much  cunning,  the  author  succeeded  in  convincing  him 
that  his  own  safety  depended  uj)on  countermanding  his  orders  ; 
whereupon  he  whistled,  and,  m a few  minutes,  two  Indians 
pulled  over  from  the  river,  and  Denis  had  a conversation  with 
them,  after  which  they  went  back.  Denis  then  said  that  they 
would  start  at  once  for  Moreti,  which  was  three  hours’  journey, 
to  order  the  chief  to  let  Gisborne  go  unharmed.  Denis  died 
in  18()1. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


75 


Although  the  Sassardi  people  were  friendly  to  Commander 
Parsons  and  his  officers  during  their  stay,  they  did  not  attempt 
to  conceal  their  anxiety  to  get  rid  of  them,  and  expressed  much 
gratification  when  told  they  were  about  to  depart. 

Caereto  had  about  twenty  huts,  built  of  manicole  palm 
stems,  and  thatched  with  troolie  leaves.  The  native  traders 
were  Bolivar,  Trueno  (thunder),  and  Smith.  Trueno  had  been 
in  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and  New  Orleans,  and  spoke  some 
words  of  English  and  Spanish.  They  said  there  was  a small 
village  a little  inland.  A young  man  of  this  village,  named  Jose 
Pio,  had  been  brought  up  by  a Granadian  at  Yavisa,  but  he 
was  then  absent.  The  Carreto  people  were  more  opposed  than 
any  others  to  the  canal  project,  and  were  very  sulky  and  surly. 
Smith  scolded  Pedro  Ucros,  a gentleman  from  Carthagena,  who 
accompanied  the  author,  and  asked  him  why  he  did  not  travel  in 
his  own  country.  On  the  night  of  their  arrival  the  Indians 
fired  off  pedreros  at  short  intervals  for  two  hours,  the  shots  being 
answered  from  some  place  inland.  This  detonation  seemed  to  be 
intended  to  frighten  them  away.  During  the  expedition  of 
1854,  when  Colonel  Codazzi,  who  was  sent  by  the  New  Granada 
Government,  with  200  soldiers  and  convicts  to  assist  in  the 
survey  of  the  Darien  Canal  Line,  encamped  them  on  the  beach 
of  Caledonia  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Aglatumati,  the  Carreto 
people  sent  almost  daily  messages  to  him,  requesting  him  to  take 
his  men  away.  Codazzi,  who  was  an  Italian,  was  chief  of  the 
Chorographic  Commission  which  was  engaged  in  surveying  the 
provinces  of  New  Granada.  As  he  was  also  part  concessionaire 
of  the  privilege  for  a canal  by  the  Atrato  route,  he  did  all  he 
could  to  defeat  the  object  of  the  Darien  expedition,  and  strictly 
confined  his  men  to  their  camp  on  the  beach.  He  died  at  Bar- 
ranquilla,  on  the  Magdalena,  in  1859.  It  was  from  Carreto 
that  Vasco  Nunez  sailed  to  Agla,  in  Caledonia  Bay,  whence  he 
started  for  the  Pacific.  He  had  previously  entered  into  a treaty 
of  friendship  with  the  cacique,  whose  daughter,  Carreta,*  he 
took  for  his  wife.  About  fifty  years  ago  it  was  the  residence  of 
Quebanna,  who  was  esteemed  the  wisest  of  the  Darien  chiefs. 
The  last  chief  was  Jose  Rosario. 

In  Anachucuna  Bay,  there  is  a small  village,  where  a man 
named  Leon,  whose  father  was  a native  of  Cura 90a,  died 
in  1851. 

Tarena  Village,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tarena,  a river  a little 
west  of  the  Tarena  mouth  of  the  Atrato,  is  probably  built  on  the 
very  site  of  Santa  Maria  la  Antigua  del  Darien,  the  first  settle- 
ment founded  in  America.  It  was,  and  is  still  perhaps,  the  resi- 

* Careta,  the  Spanish  word  for  tortoise-shell,  was  perhaps  introduced  from 
the  Indian. 


70 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAllTEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


(lencG  of  Zapata  (Slicpliard)  tlic  half  Indian  son  of  old  Ca])taln 
fJolin  Shephard,  of  Sjin  »Iuan  de  Nicaragua.  Tarcna  is,  v(‘ry 
likely,  a corruption  of  Darien,  which  would  seem  to  have  heeii 
the  ancient  name  of  the  Atrato,  the  main  channel  of  which  is 
now  called  Tarena.  Perha])s  in  the  Choed  lanirua(rc,  the  Atrato 
is  still  called  Darien. 

The  Indian  ])0})ulation  of  the  north  hein^  2800,  and  the 
Granadians  of  the  south  1485,  it  follows  that  4285  ])CO])le,  most 
of  whom  are  savages,  occupy  a country  210  miles  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  50  miles,  having  a soil  of  amazing  fertility, 
capable  of  yielding  the  most  valuable  ])roducts,  and  occu])ying  a 
most  commanding  position  for  commerce,  situated,  as  it  is,  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  with  magnificent  harbours 
on  each,  and  at  only  eight  days’  steaming  from  New  York  and 
sixteen  from  England.  This  seems  strange,  ])articularly  when 
we  reflect  that  the  narrowest  part  of  the  neck  of  land  between 
the  two  oceans  is  there  ; and  that  there,  also,  the  first  settlement 
was  made  after  the  discovery  of  America — Santa  Maria  la 
Antigua  del  Darien  having  been  the  first  town  built  on  the  con- 
tinent of  America.  Nevertheless,  there  is  yet  neither  path, 
track,  trail,  nor  line  of  transmit  of  any  kind  across  the  Isthmus 
of  Darien. 


THE  ATLANTIC  COAST. 

The  Gulf  of  Darien  or  Uraba. 

Punta  Caribanathe  northernmost  point  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien 
is  low,  covered  with  trees,  and  surrounded  by  rocks  lying  close 
to  it.  It  is  easily  recognised  because  from  it  the  coast  trends  to 
the  S.  to  form  the  gulf,  and  Cerro  del  Aguila  or  Eagle’s  Hill  is 
near  it.  This  hills  lies  in  Lat.  8°  37'  10''  N.,  Long.  76°  50'  W., 
and  from  it  Cape  Tiburon,  the  west  point  of  the  gulf  bears  W. 
(N.  84°  W.),  29  miles  distant.  Aguila  Hill,  though  only  of 
moderate  height,  is  remarkable  in  consequence  of  its  being  insu- 
lated in  the  centre  of  low  land.  Pounces  and  garnets*  have 
been  found  in  it.  The  gulf  has,  then,  its  entrance  between 
Caribana  point,  on  the  E.,  and  Cape  Tiburon  (shark),  on  the 
AY.,  and  extends  46  miles  to  the  south  from  a line  drawn 
between  them.  Its  E.  side,  for  a few  miles  S.  of  Caribana 
point,  is  in  the  province  of  Carthagena,  in  the  State  of  Bolivar ; 
the  rest  of  that  side  is  in  the  province  of  Chocb,  in  the  State  of 
Antioquia.  Its  W.  side,  from  the  Atrato  to  Cape  Tiburon,  is 
in  Darien.  All  its  E.  and  S.  coasts  to  the  Bay  of  Candelaria 

* Garnet  is  a silicate  of  aluiniiiiiini,  magnesium,  and  iron.  When  cut  efi 
cahochon,  that  is,  of  a boss  shape,  it  is  called  carbuncle. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


77 


offer  safe  anchorage  at  every  season ; but  the  rest  of  it  to  Cape 
Tiburon  is  very  wild  in  the  season  of  the  breezes,  and  without 
any  shelter  except  for  small  vessels  ; hut,  in  the  season  of  calms^ 
light  breezes,  and  variable  winds  or  vendavales,  one  may  anchor 
in  any  part  of  the  gulf  without  risk  of  being  incommoded  by 
either  wind  or  sea. 

Nearly  5-J-  miles  S.S.W.  -J  W.  (S.  35°  W.)  from  Caribana 
Point  is  North  Arenas  Point,  which  forms  with  the  south  point 
a low  front  2 miles  in  extent,  the  bearing  between  them  being 
S.  19°  E.  and  N.  19°  W.  These  points  form  the  W.  dyke 
of  Aguila  Lagoon,  which  extends  from  thence  5|-  miles,  and 
from  N.  to  S.  3 miles,  with  several  low  islets  in  it.  This  lagoon 
commences  at  the  S.  extremity  of  Aguila  Hill. 

From  Arenas  Point  southward  the  coast  trends  towards  the 
eastward  for  5^  miles  to  the  Rio  Salado,  and  thus  forms  a 
tongue  of  sand  extending  out  to  sea,  which,  although  it  is  low, 
has  sufficient  water  near  it,  and  may  be  run  along  at  less  than  a 
mile.  From  Rio  Salado  the  coast  trends  nearly  S.S.E.  It  is  all 
low  land,  with  hillocks  at  intervals.  The  depth  on  the  bank  all 
along  it  is  so  regular,  and  the  bottom  so  clean,  that  it  may  be 
coasted  without  any  other  care  than  attention  to  the  hand-lead. 
To  the  S.  from  Cayman  Point  and  Hill,  which  are  14  miles 
from  Rio  Salado,  the  shores  on  both  sides  are  low  and  swampy, 
and  continue  so  as  far  as  the  delta  of  the  Atrato.  At  the 
outermost  part  of  the  delta,  25  miles  to  the  southward  of 
Arenas  Point,  the  gulf  is  contracted  to  a width  of  only  4 miles. 

From  Rio  Salado  to  the  mouth  of  the  Suriquilla,  in  the 
bottom  of  the  gulf,  the  rivers  Ycoquillo,  Uraba,*  Cayman 
Viejo,  Cayman  Nuevo,  Civilo,  Cope,  Turbo,  Guadalito,  Kara- 
cuarando  or  Seteguillegandi,t  Micura,  and  Leon  fall  into  it. 
All  these  have  their  sources  in  the  spurs  of  the  Antioquian 
mountains  which  approach  the  east  side  of  the  gulf.  The  Leon 
or  Guacuba  is  a considerable  river,  whose  principal  tributaries 
are  the  Cun,  Van,  Cano  Grande,  Ipenegue,  Aruy,  Chueti, 
and  Carebro.  It  has  a very  long  course,  its  upper  portion, 
named  Papagana,  rising  in  the  Cordillera  westward  of  that 
part  of  the  valley  of  the  Cauca  between  Medellin  and  Santa  Fe 
de  Antioquia. 

At  Turbo  mouth,  due  E.  of  the  Cano  Coquito  mouth  of  the 
Atrato,  is  a village  of  about  twelve  huts  raised  on  stilts  to 
defend  them  from  the  water,  mud,  and  insects,  and  nearly 

* On  the  banks  of  the  Uraba  are  the  ruins  of  a settlement,  which  was 
perhaps  San  Sebastian,  founded  by  Ojeda  in  1510. 

f The  former  is  its  name  in  the  language  of  the  Chocb,  the  latter  in  that 
of  the  Darien  Indians.  In  the  former  language,  the  termination  do  or  dor,  in  the 
latter,  or  di,  signifies  a river. 


78 


ISTHMUS  OU  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


buried  in  forest.  The  people  employ  themselves  in  collectiim 
caoutchouc,  which  is  abundant  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  of 
V'hicli  Mr.  Dean,  an  English  resident,  cx])orts  a large  cpiantity. 

Near  Turbo  grows  the  Lana  or  wool  tree.  A ])ortion  of  the 
roots  of  this  remarkable  tree  is  exposed  for  10  or  12  ft.  above 
the  ground,  covering  a circular  sj)ace  of  about  20  ft.  in  diameter. 
The  trunk  is  6 ft.  in  diameter  at  its  lower  extremity,  and  rises  to 
a great  height.  The  bark  is  often  jmnetured  by  insects,  and 
the  seeds  of  various  plants  settle  in  the  wood  and  germinate ; 
the  tree  then  presents  the  singular  appearance  of  giving  growth 
to  several  varieties  of  leaves  and  flowers. 

Don  Antonio  Gago,  who  was  commissioned  by  the  King  of 
S])aiu  to  examine  the  mines  of  Darien,  mentions  in  his  re])ort,  in 
1788,  the  existence  of  a silver  mine  on  the  rivulet  (fpiebrada) 
Namacpiilla,  which  rises  not  far  from  Cayman,  and  falls  into 
the  gulf  near  Turbo. 


The  Delta  of  the  Athato. 

From  a little  west  of  the  river  Surlquilla,  which  falls  into  the 
Bay  of  Candelaria  in  the  southernmost  part  of  the  gulf,  the  delta, 
through  which  the  great  river  Atrato  or  Darien  disembogues, 
extends  to  the  N.W. 

The  Bay  of  Candelaria  is  bordered  by  the  low  and  swampy 
land  at  the  mouths  of  the  river,  and  bears  from  the  point  and 
IMorro,  or  round  hillock,  of  Cayman  about  S.W.,  at  the  distance 
of  12  miles.  For  sailing  along  all  this  coast  of  the  bottom  of 
the  gulf,  from  Point  Cayman,  on  the  E.,  to  the  Bay  of  Cande- 
laria, on  the  W.,  there  is  no  necessity  for  other  directions  than 
that  of  attending  to  the  lead,  nor  is  there  any  danger,  for  a ship 
may  be  anchored  wherever  it  may  be  convenient  or  necessary. 

The  principal  or  only  object  for  navigating  the  gulf  is  to 
approach  or  enter  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato,  which  affords  great 
facilities  for  introducing  into  the  interior  the  imports,  and  with- 
drawing from  thence  the  exports  of  the  province  of  Choco,*  of 
which  it  is  the  main  artery  and  the  only  highway.  Although 
this  river  opens  into  Candelaria  Bay  by  thirteen  mouths,  only 

* The  province  of  Choco  had,  in  1851,  a population  of  43,619,  consisting 
of  negroes  and  civilised  Indians,  who,  unlike  their  neighbours  in  Darien,  are 
very  inoffensive.  There  is  a considerable  export  of  gold  dust  from  it ; and,  in 
1841,  the  imports  included  10,000  bales  from  England.  Quibdb,  or  Cithara,  the 
capital,  in  hit.  5°  37'  N.,  is  2°  29'  30  W.  of  Bogota,  and  had,  in  1851,  a popu- 
lation of  8471.  It  is  a miserable  collection  of  mud  huts,  thatched  with  pmm 
leaves,  built  in  a swampy  situation,  and  propped  up  on  stilts  to  defend  them 
from  llie  mud,  water,  and  insects.  It  stretches  about  half  a mile  along  the 
W.  bank  of  the  river,  and  has  some  trade  with  Carthageua,  Loiica  on  the  Sinu, 
and  Novita  on  the  San  Juan. 


ISTHMUS  OF  HAKIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


79 


eiglit  of  them  are  navigable  for  boats  or  launches  ; and,  of  them 
all,  the  Faysan  Chico,  or  Caiio  Coquito,  offers  the  greatest 
advantages,  because,  when  anchored  in  the  Bay,  vessels  will  fiad 
shelter  from  the  sea,  and  be  near  the  channel  by  which  their 
freights  are  to  be  carried  inland.  This  arm  of  the  river  has 
3 ft.  of  water  on  its  bar,  and  the  tides  rise  only  2 ft.  throughout 
the  gulf. 

The  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Candelaria  is  so  very  low  that  the 
greater  part  of  it  is  inundated  even  at  low  water,  and  bordered 
with  mangroves,  reeds,  and  rushes,  so  that  only  the  N.W.  part 
appears  dry.  The  entrance  of  the  bay,  from  the  N.W.  to  the 
S.E.  point,  where  the  little  Faysaii  falls  into  it,  is  about  two 
miles  in  width  ; but  there  is  a sandbank  which  extends  out  to  a 
mile  to  S.E.  of  the  N.W.  point,  and  straightens  it  to  scarce  a 
mile.  This  shoal  also  stretches  off  from  the  S.E.  point,  but  only 
to  1^  cable’s  length.  The  clear  space  of  good  anchorage  is 
about  If  mile  each  way. 

From  the  N.W.  point  of  Candelaria  Bay  the  coast  continues 
low  and  covered  with  mangroves  for  nearly  five  miles,  N.  10°  W. 
to  Bevesa  Point ; and  thence  W.N.W.  seven  miles  to  Tarena 
Cays.  On  all  this  coast  the  shallow  bank,  thrown  up  by  the 
waters  from  the  mouths,  and  consisting  of  the  softest  oaze, 
extends  one  mile  outwards,  and  is  exposed  to  constant  changes. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  keep  at  two  miles  distance  from  the 
coast.  Bevesa,  or  Chocd,  Point  forms  a curve  that  presents  a 
fine  anchorage,  well  sheltered  from  the  north  winds  and  breezes. 
About  one-third  of  the  distance  from  this  point  towards  Tarena 
Cays  is  Boca  Tarena,  the  princi})al  mouth  of  the  Atrato,  which 
is  so  exposed  to  the  breezes  that  commerce  is  more  conveniently 
caiTied  on  by  means  of  the  little  Faysan. 

Inland  and  south  of  Tarena  Cays  is  the  Peak  of  Tarena,  on 
the  range  of  the  Cordillera,  which  runs  jiarallel  to  the  coast  only 
a few  miles  iidand,  and  presents  from  N.  to  S.  the  peaks  named 
Candelaria,  Tarena,  Gandi,  and  Pico  de  Cabo,  or  de  Tiburon, 
inland  of  that  cape. 

From  Tarena  Cays  the  coast  runs  about  N.W.  by  N. 
(N.  68°  W)  ten  miles  to  the  Bolanderos  Islets,  and  is  high,  with 
a few  islets  lying  along  it.  The  first  of  these,  named  Tutu- 
mati,  is  a group  of  three,  about  half  a mile  from  the  coast,  and 
clean  all  round.  Succeeding  them  is  another  named  Tambor. 
To  the  west  of  Tambor  Islet  the  coast  bends  a little  inwards,  and 
forms  Puerto  Escondido,  or  hidden  harbour,  which  will  admit 
only  small  vessels.  About  three  miles  from  Escondido  Harbour 
is  Bolandero  Islet,  of  moderate  size,  having  around  it  several 
smaller  ones,  with  sufficiently  deep  water  round  them ; these  do 
not  lie  more  than  three-quarters  of  a mile  from  the  shore. 


80 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAIUEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


At  tliree  miles  N.W.  Ijy  W.  ^ W.  from  Great  Ijolanderos  is 
Piton  Jslet,  clean  all  round,  between  wliicli  and  the  coast  there  is 
a channel  half  a mile  wide.  From  thence,  at  the  distance  of  six 
miles  W.N.W.  ^ W.,  is  Tri])o^andi  Point,  forming  the  F.  ])oint 
of  a beachy  bay,  named  Ensenada  dc  Tri])oo;andi.  From  this 
])oint  the  coast  continues  about  N.N.AV.  ^ \V.  1 ’ mile  to  the 
point  of  the  river  Gandi,  which,  with  the  former,  forms  the  Ibiy 
of  Estola  or  Gandi,  where  the  rivers  so  named  disendjo^ne.  In 
this  vicinity  an  island  suddenly  rose  in  1858,  as  the  author  was 
informed  the  year  after  by  Don  Ignacio  Pombo,  the  barbour- 
master  at  Carthagena.  About  (ii  miles  N.N.^y.  of  Ti’ij)ogandi 
Point  lies  Tonel  Islet,  very  clean,  with  deej)  water;  it  is  one 
long  mile  from  the  coast.  From  this  islet  to  Ca])e  Tibnron  the 
distance  is  miles  N.W.  -}  AY.  All  this  coast  from  Tarena 
Cays  to  Cape  Tibnron  is  high  and  ])recipitous,  with  deep  water 
off  it ; but  it  is  very  wild  in  the  season  of  the  breezes,  for  wbich 
reason  it  is  most  prudent  to  avoid  it  during  that  season,  and  to 
keep  on  the  E.  side  of  the  gulf,  as  it  not  only  affords  security 
and  the  accommodation  of  anchorage  in  every  part,  but  there 
is  no  inconvenience  on  that  side  from  the  sea ; it  is  also  much 
more  easy  for  working  to  windward,  so  that  much  time  may  be 
saved  by  keeping  to  it. 

Cape  Tiburon  is  the  N.AY.  boundary  of  tlie  gulf.  It  is  rocky, 
high,  and  scarped,  and  projects  out  in  a N.N.E.  direction,  forming 
an  isthmus,  on  the  S.  and  AA^.  sides  of  which  are  two  little  har- 
bours. The  first  is  so  narrow  as  to  be  of  little  importance ; the 
second,  named  Miel  Harbour,  is  larger,  and  has  good  holding 
ground ; its  greatest  depth  is  from  12  to  13  fathoms,  on  sand 
and  clay. 

From  Cape  Tiburon  a sandy  beach  extends  13  miles  AY.N.AAh 
to  the  point  at  the  foot  of  the  Peak  of  Carreto,  forming  Anachu- 
cuna  Bay,  which  is  about  2-J  miles  deep.  At  its  N.  end,  about 
two  miles  S.E.  of  Carreto  Point,  is  the  little  harbour  of  Escon- 
dido, fit  for  small  vessels  only. 

Cakeeto  Harbour. 

The  Peak  and  Point  of  Carreto,  13  miles  W.N.W.  (N.  62°  W.) 
of  Cape  Tiburon,  are  at  the  eastern  side  of  the  Harbour  of 
Carreto,  the  western  part  being  formed  by  a cluster  of  islets  of 
various  sizes.  Between  them,  at  the  distance  of  1-|-  mile,  is  the 
widest  part,  the  narrowest  being  one  mile.  This  harbour  is  of  a 
semicircular  form,  and  falls  in  about  a mile,  with  a depth  of  from 
3J  to  8^  fathoms.  Being  exposed  to  the  heavy  seas  thrown  in 
by  the  N.E.  breezes,  it  is  of  use  only  in  the  season  of  light 
winds,  d'o  the  north  of  this  harbour,  at  the  distance  of  a long 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


81 


mile,  there  are  two  little  shoals,  the  Bajos  de  Carreto,  near  each 
other,  bearing  N.E.  and  S.W.,  with  6 fathoms  on  them  on  rocky- 
bottom,  and  near  them  from  20  to  25  fathoms.  With  fresh 
breezes,  the  sea  breaks  over  them. 

At  7 miles  N.  48°  W.  from  Carreto  Point  and  Peak  is  Punta 
Escoces.  On  this  bearing  there  are  clusters  of  islets  of  different 
sizes,  extending  out  to  N.N.E.  a long  mile  from  Punta  de  las 
Isletas.  From  Carreto  to  the  latter  the  coast  is  high  and 
scarped,  but  from  thence  to  Point  Escoces,  3 miles  N.W.,  it  is 
lower,  and  has  a beach. 

Point  Escoces  is  tlie  extremity  of  a narrow  neck  of  land,  about 
2 miles  in  length  in  a N.W.  direction,  which  forms  the  N.E. 
side  of  Port  Escoces. 

Port  Escoces,  Caledonia  Bay,  Caledonia  Harbour,  and  the 
Channel  of  Sassardi  will  be  noticed  in  the  account  of  the  Darien 
Canal  Line. 


The  Isle  of  Pines. 

Its  S.E.  extremity  bears  N.  5°  W.  from  the  Fronton  of  Sas- 
sardi at  the  distance  of  2 miles.  In  the  space  between  it  and 
the  coast  there  is  a channel  of  two  cables’  length  in  width  at  the 
narrowest  part,  with  from  1 J to  5 fathoms  of  water.  Off  its  W. 
side  is  the  Cienaga  or  Lagoon  of  Navagandi,  the  mouth  of  which 
is  shut  in  by  reefs.  The  Isle  of  Pines  is  high,  with  a hill 
extending  along  it,  on  which  rise  two  remarkable  points  covered 
with  trees.  Its  greatest  extent  lies  N.W.  by  N.  and  S.E.  by  S. 
one  mile,  and  its  greatest  breadth  is  three-quarters  of  a mile. 
Its  N.E.  and  S.E.  sides  are  scarped  and  bordered  by  reefs  very 
near  the  shore.  Its  N.E.  point  lies  in  Lat.  9°  1'  30  N.,  and 
Long.  77°  45'  20"  W. 

On  its  south  side  there  is  a little  rill  of  good  water  which  runs 
down  a gully  and  into  a small  basin,  but  it  is  so  near  the  shore 
that  an  unusual  rise  of  tide  washes  away  the  saiid,  and  the  sea 
flows  into  it.  Excellent  firewood  may  be  cut  to  the  eastward  of 
the  watering-place,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut  the  man- 
chineel  ivQQ^Iiippoinane  mancinella^Eup)liorhiaceo2)^^^\\\(^\  abounds 
there  and  is  poisonous.  Drake  visited  this  island  on  the  23rd  of 
July,  1572,  and  found  there  two  frigates  from  Nombre  de  Dios 
taking  in  timber.  The  negroes  in  those  vessels  informed  him 
that  some  soldiers  were  expected  from  Panama  for  the  defence 
of  the  town  against  the  Ciniarrones,  or  runaway  slaves. 

The  Mulatas,  or  San  Blas  Archipelago. 

Two  and  a half  miles  N.  by  W.  from  the  north  end  of  the  Isle 
of  Pines  is  Pajaros,  or  Bird  Island,  which  is  low,  narrow,  covered 

G 


82 


ISTHMUS  OF  DABIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


M’itli  bnisliwood,  and  surrounded  l)y  reefs,  liaviu^  7 and  8 
fatliouis,  on  rocky  bottom,  cdose  to  tlieui.  At  tliis  island  com- 
mences the  extensive  Arcliipclago  of  the  Mulatas,  or  Samballas 
(San  Jllas),  com])oscd  of  islets,  cays,  shoals,  .and  reefs,  which, 
sweeping  round  to  the  N.W.,  at  a coiisidei’able  distance  from 
the  maiidand,  terminate  off  San  Bias  ]k)int,  .about  80  miles 
distant.  The  c.ays  arc  low,  nearly  flat,  sandy,  and  thickly 
wooded.  They  lie  in  clusters,  having  navigJible  channels  be- 
t^veen  them,  leading  to  secure  and  sheltered  anchorages  within 
them  all  along  the  shore.  Some  of  them  h.avc  s])iMngs  of  good 
water,  and  convenient  spots  for  loading  and  careening,  and  the 
fishing  and  turtling  around  them  are  excellent.  Great  nund)ers 
of  lime-trees  grow  on  them,  and  ])roducc  large  fruit ; so  that 
sailors  navigating  those  w.atcrs  need  not  fear  the  scurvy.  The 
main  shore  is  full  of  sandy  b.ays,  with  many  streams  running 
into  them.  The  largest  group  is  the  Ilolamles,  wdiich  is  about 
7 miles  in  extent  from  E.  to  W.  The  north  side  of  the 
reef  wdiich  bounds  this  group  is  fi’om  8 to  10  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  the  cays  .are  separated  from  those  immediately  adja- 
cent to  the  mainland  by  a clear  opening  of  3 miles  wide.  A vessel 
being  3 miles  N.  of  P.ajaros,  and  steering  N.W.  ^ W.  for 
25  miles,  then  W.  by  N.  ^ N.  for  39  miles,  will  ])ass  outside  all 
the  cays,  and  will  be  4 or  5 miles  to  the  N.  of  the  easternmost 
of  the  Holandes  group.  Great  attention  to  the  lead  is,  how- 
ever, required,  for  it  is  suspected  that  many  banks  lie  outside  the 
cays. 

The  channels  formed  by  these  cays  arc  named  Pinos,  Mos- 
quitos, Kweeti,  Zambogandi,  Punta  Brava,  Cocos,  Rio  Monos, 
Ratones,  Playon  Grande,  Puyadas,  Arebalo,  Mangles,  Moron, 
Caobos,  Holandes,  Chichime,  and  San  Bias.  Canal  de  Holandes 
is  the  largest : the  least  depth  in  it  is  15  fathoms,  on  a sandy 
bottom,  and  its  width  is  2|  miles.  Its  entrance  is  bounded  on 
the  S.W.  by  Icacos  Cay,  which  is  dry,  and  covered  with  high 
icacos  (cocoa-plum)  trees.* 

The  islets  and  cays  of  this  archipelago  present  a most  singular 
and  beautiful  appearance  when  viewed  from  sea,  and  the  cap- 
tains of  the  West  India  mail  steamers  plying  between  Carthagena 
and  Aspinwall  would  afford  their  passengers  a rich  treat  by 
running  within  sight  of  them. 

Gulf  of  San  Blas. 

Eighteen  miles  W.  by  S.  ^ S.  of  the  easternmost  cays  of  the 

* Cn/sohalamis  hicaco,  .'i  tree  bcloiigliif^  to  the  Ciysohal.anace.'c,  a natural 
family  allied  to  tlic  llosaoea).  It  bears  a pulpy  fruit  the  size  of  a plum.  The 
root,  bark,  and  leaves  arc  used  medicinally. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


83 


Holandes  group  is  San  Bias  Point,  in  lat.  9^  34'  36",  long. 
79°  0'  30".  It  is  low,  and  skirted  by  a reef  to  the  distance  of 
1|  mile,  on  which  are  several  cays,  the  easternmost  called  Cay 
Frances.  In  a S.W.  and  W.  direction  from  Cay  Frances  there 
are  twelve  more  islets,  upon  some  of  which  are  small  fishing 
establishments ; and  to  the  E.  of  them  are  many  banks  and 
islands,  forming  part  of  the  Mulatas  archipelago,  and  having 
channels  between  them.  Point  San  Bias  forms  the  N.E. 
boundary  of  the  Gulf  of  San  Bias,  the  mouth  of  which  extends 
N.  and  S.  6 miles,  to  the  anchorage  of  Mandinga.  From  that 
line  the  gulf  has  a width  of  6 miles  to  the  W.  Its  shores  are 
low,  and  bordered  by  mangroves.  The  anchorage  of  Mandinga 
and  also  that  of  Bahia  Inglesa,  or  English  Bay,  in  its  S.W.  part, 
are  well  sheltered,  and  have  depth  sufficient  for  any  class  of 
vessels.  To  run  into  the  gulf,  the  most  commodious  passages 
are  the  Channel  of  Chichime,  3 miles  wide,  and  that  of  San 
Bias,  If  miles  wide.  Quite  close  to’^  the  Point,  the  Cordillera 
rises  to  the  height  of  2300  ft.  This  point  is  the  boundary,  on 
the  Atlantic  side,  between  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  and  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  the  settlements  of  the  Darien  Indians 
do  not  extend  west  of  it. 


Distances. 

Miles. 

From  the  most  eastern  mouth  of  the  Atrato  to  Cape  Tiburoii  . 46 


Cape  Tiburon  to  Point  Escoces 19 

Escoces  Point  to  Sassardi  Point 9 

Sassardi  Point  to  Cape  San  Bias 86 

Length  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  of  Darien  . .160 

Latitudes  and  Longitudes. 

* Lat.  N.  Long.  W. 


Lat.  N.  Long.  W. 


Caribana  Point 

Turbo,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Gulf  of  1 

8° 

37' 

30" 

76" 

52' 

55" 

Darien,  due  E.  of  the  Cano  Coquito  f 
mouth  of  the  Atrato  (Lieutenant  I 

• 8 

4 

56-2 

76 

41 

50-7 

Craven,  1858)  . . . . ' 

Cape  Tiburon  ..... 

8 

41 

30 

77 

21 

30 

Scorpion  Cay,  Caledonia  Harbour  1 
(Parsons,  1854)  . . . . ) 

■ 8 

54 

52 

77 

42 

25 

Cape  San  Bias 

9 

34 

36 

79 

0 

30 

Current. 

Along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  from  Greytown  a 
current  is  very  sensibly  felt,  following  the  curvature  of  the  land 
towards  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  This  easterly  current  extends 
from  20  to  30  miles  from  the  land,  and  its  rate  is  from  1 to  2 


84 


LSTIT]\rUS  OF  DAIIIEN  AND  TITE  SHIP  CANAL. 


miles  an  hour.  Close  off  the  entrance  of  Portohello  it  runs  from 
1-^  to  even  ?>  knots  an  hour  in  the  rainy  season.  In  (yaledonia 
Harbour  the  tidal  streams  are  overcome  l)y  a current  wliich  s(‘ts 
through  the  channel  of  Sassardi  to  the  S.E.,  at  about  J^rd  of  a 
mile  per  hour. 

Surveys. 

The  survey  of  the  coast  from  the  Atrato  to  the  Chngres,  by 
Captain  Don  Jojiquin  Francisco  Fidalgo,  was  published  by  the 
Hydrographic  Office  at  Madrid,  in  1817.  The  Atrato  had  ])rc- 
viously  been  surveyed  by  Don  Vincente  de  Talledo  y Kivera,  and 
the  coast  from  Carthagena  to  Venezuela  by  Ca])tain  Don  Cosine 
de  Churruca.  The  charts  of  the  harbours  are  contained  in  the 
Portoplano  de  las  Antillas.  In  1828,  Lieutenant  W.  Ed.  Fiott, 
ll.N.,  visited  the  coast  of  the  isthmus  in  the  schooner  Renegade^ 
but  does  not  appear  to  have  made  any  survey.  The  coast  near 
Chagres  was  surveyed,  in  1828,  by  Captain  H.  Forster,  of 
H.M.S.  Chanticleer,  who  was  drowned  in  1831  in  Chagres 
river.  In  1854,  Port  Escoces,  Caledonia  Harbour,  and  the 
Channel  of  Sassardi  were  surveyed  by  Commander  Parsons,  of 
H.M.S.  Scorpion.  The  longitudes  on  all  the  charts  of  the  coast 
from  the  Atrato  to  Cape  San  Bias,  except  on  that  of  Caledonia 
Harbour,  by  Parsons,  are  wrong,  and  a new  survey  is  much 
wanted. 

The  Coral  Cays. 

The  coral  of  the  cays  and  islands  is  exceedingly  beautiful. 
When  living  in  their  natural  element  the  various  sorts  of  coral 
are  covered  with  a gelatinous  matter  of  the  finest  colours ; and, 
looking  out  of  a boat  on  a sunny  day  on  the  groves  of  coral,  sea- 
fans,  sponges,  and  polypi,  with  their  brilliant  colours  dancing  on 
the  unsteady  water,  and  gaudy  fish  gliding  about  among  their 
branches,  one  can  imagine  himself  looking  through  some  bril- 
liant kaleidoscope.  Immense  lobsters,  conchs,  and  whelks  the 
size  of  a man’s  fist  are  found  in  abundance  at  these  coral  cays, 
and  also  a huge  crab  about  tlie  size  of  a soup-plate,  with  a 
lovely  pink  shell  spotted  with  white.  Hermit  crabs  roam  at 
night  over  these  little  islands,  disturbing  the  weary  boatmen  by 
biting  their  toes  and  demolishing  any  food  left  in  the  pots; 
during  the  day  they  all  disappear,  being  snugly  hid  under  tufts  of 
grass.  In  the  quiet  bays,  protected  by  the  coral  reefs  from  the 
trembling  brcidsiers,  flocks  of  grave  pelicans  sail  about  on  the 
water,  with  their  heads  thrown  back,  and  their  long  bills  resting 
on  their  breasts,  or  tumble  headlong  from  the  air  among  the 
shoals  of  s])rats,  driving  them  in  a silvery  shower  out  of  the 
water.  The  predaceous  frigate-bird  pursues  the  sno^vy  sea-gull, 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


85 


screaming  round  the  cay,  and  amusing  the  spectator  with  its 
manoeuvres  to  escape,  till,  wearied  out,  it  lets  fall  the  coveted 
fish,  which  is  seized  by  the  other  before  it  reaches  the  water. 
Along  the  glaring  sandy  beach  parties  of  snipes  and  sand-pipers 
scamper  along  in  eager  pursuit  of  their  prey,  which  is  washed 
up  in  the  rolls  of  seaweed  by  the  little  waves.  Now  and  then 
as  a boat  passes,  yellow  w'ater-snakes  will  suddenly  erect  their 
heads  and  show  their  fangs  with  an  angry  hissing.  Occasionally, 
shoals  of  grampus  enliven  the  scene,  splashing,  leaping,  and 
hunting  one  another  with  the  greatest  liveliness.  The  white 
circle  of  breakers  on  the  reef,  the  dark  blue  sea  outside,  the 
calm  bay  with  its  back-ground  of  rich  evergreen  foliage,  and 
the  light  feathery  clouds  drifting  over  with  the  steady  trade 
wind,  form  a coup  cC oeil  only  to  be  imagined  in  the  dark  and 
stormy  north. 

The  Pacific  Coast. 

Inside  Cruces  Point,  in  lat.  6°  32',  is  Cupica  Bay,  into  which 
fall  the  rivers  Cacique  and  Cupica.  This  harbour  has  deep 
water  and  is  well  sheltered,  except  from  S.  winds.  Farther 
north  is  Cape  Marzo,  the  Morro  Quemado  of  Pizarro,  a bold, 
bluff  headland,  which  projects  southwards  and  forms  a bay, 
called  Bahia  Octavia,  or  Aguacate.  Above  Cape  Marzo,  the 
rivers  Corredor,  Paracuchichi,  or  Bocorochichi,*  and  Jurador, 
fall  into  a bay,  called  Puerto  Quemado,  the  northern  limit  of 
which  is  Ardita  Point.  The  mouth  of  the  Paracuchichi  was 
proposed  as  the  terminus  of  the  exploded  Atrato  and  Truando 
canal  route;  and  the  Jurador  was  the  river  which  Pizarro 
visited  on  his  first  expedition  in  search  of  Peru.  It  was  called 
by  the  Indians,  Biru;  but  he  gave  it  the  name  of  Rio  de 
Hambre,  or  Hunger  river,  and  called  the  natives  Pueblo  Que- 
mado or  burnt  people.  The  misapplication  of  the  name  Biru 
which  probably  meant  South,  gave  rise  to  that  of  Peru.  All 
the  way  from  Cape  Marzo  to  Ardita  Point,  the  beach  is  skirted 
with  innumerable  cocoa-nut  trees.  As  these  are  found  on  the 
Darien  coast,  in  places  where  no  human  beings  or  traces  of 
them  are  to  be  seen,  that  would  seem  to  be  their  native  country. 
From  Ardita  to  Cocalito  and  Pinas  Points,  the  coast  is  bold 
and  rocky. 

Inside  of  Piiias  Point  is  the  little  harbour  of  Puerto  Pinas, 
which  is  very  commodious  and  sheltered  from  the  winds ; but 
its  entrance  is  narrow  and  obstructed  by  three  small  islands. 

* Many  Indian  languages  agree  in  the  repetition  of  tlie  same  syllable  in  a 
word.  Coeoraboora,  Cabacaboora,  and  Chichiriviehi,  in  tlie  language  of  the 
Warrows  of  Essequibo  and  Venezuela;  and  Bellibellero,  in  that  of  the  Caribs 
of  Guiana,  must  here  suffice  for  examples. 


ISTHMUS  OF  UATUEN  AND  TTTE  STflF  CANAL. 


8n 


Its  position  is  marked  very  distinctly  ])y  several  detaclied  rocks 
outside.  It  is  2^  miles  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  extends  inwards 
5 miles.  A small  river,  wliicli  is  lial)lc  to  sudden  freshets,  falls 
into  it.  It  is  closely  hemmed  in  hy  mountains  densely  wooded, 
the  land  beliind  rising  to  a lieiglit  of  from  500  to  lOOO  ft., 
whilst  the  more  distant  ranges  appear  to  reach  an  altitude  of 
from  3000  to  5000  ft.  This  harbour  used  to  afford  a refuge  to 
the  pirates  of  the  South  Seas,  and  in  it  John  Cliperton,  who 
infested  them  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
careened  his  vessels. 

]^etween  Pinas  and  Garachine  Points  are  those  of  Caracoles 
and  Escarpado.  Near  the  latter  is  Puerto  Escondido,  or  Hidden 
Harbour,  very  inaccessible,  with  a narrow  entrance,  through 
which  there  rushes  a furious  tidal  current,  causing  a heavy 
swell  and  formidable  surf. 

Garachine  Point,  the  south  point  of  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf 
of  San  Miguel,  and  the  S.  E.  point  of  the  Gulf  of  Panama, 
is  bold  and  easily  distinguished  from  sea.  The  tide  runs  5^ 
knots  an  hour  off  it,  rises  3 fathoms,  and  ebbs  and  flows  N.  E. 
and  S.  W.  There  is  very  deep  water  off  it,  and  inside  of  it  is 
a large  and  well  sheltered  bay,  where  ships  may  careen. 

In  the  Pacific,  15  miles  true  W.  from  it,  is  Trollope  Rock, 
sunk  2 ft.,  and  extending  from  8°  6'  to  8°  7'  N.,  and  from 
78°  37'  45"  to  78°  38'  15". 

The  temperature  of  this  coast  is  from  84°  to  86°  F.  The 
rain-fall  is  very  great,  and  heavy  vapours  hang  over  the  heights. 
The  depth  of  water  all  along  it  is  considerable,  being  from  50 
to  60  fathoms  at  a short  distance  from  land. 

All  the  coast  from  Cape  Marzo  to  Garachine  is  in  Biruquete. 
The  country  below  Garachine  was  once  inhabited  by  the  Ta- 
rabes  Indians,  a tribe  now  extinct.  At  present,  there  are 
scarcely  any  inhabitants  from  Garachine  to  Chirambira,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  San  Juan.  At  Paracuchichi  there  are  twelve  huts 
widely  scattered,  inhabited  by  some  samboes  and  negroes  from 
Panama  and  a few  Jamaica  men  who  settled  there  some  years 
ago.  At  Cupica  there  is  a hamlet,  the  houses  of  which  are 
built  on  poles,  and  reached  by  ladders.  An  Indian  there  styles 
himself  Alcalde.  At  Ardita  Point,  which  was  visited  by  Dr. 
Seemann,  in  H.M.S.  Herald,  no  people  were  visible,  although 
there  were  some  canoes  on  the  beach;  but  two  negroes  and 
four  Indians  came  off  the  next  day  with  a white  flag.  One  of 
the  latter,  who  called  himself  Alcalde  of  Jurador,  had  a stick 
with  a silver  knob  : all  the  party  were  naked. 

The  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  the  entrance  of  which  is  between 
Garachine  Point  on  the  S.,  and  Punta  Brava,  on  the  N.,  will 
be  described  hereafter. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


87 


The  Gulf  of  Panama. 

The  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Panama  commences  at  Punta  Brava, 
and  runs  thence  in  the  shape  of  a bow  to  Punta  Mala,  the 
western  point  of  its  entrance,  Garachine  being  the  eastern. 
This  great  inlet  of  the  Pacific  is  105  miles  across  at  its  entrance, 
and  extends  inwards  75  miles.  Near  its  east  side  are  the  Pearl 
Islands,  so  that  it  has  two  passages  for  entering.  Navigators 
prefer  the  western  during  the  rainy,  and  the  eastern  in  the  dry 
season.  The  latter  has,  however,  in  its  fair-way  the  disadvan- 
tage of  the  shoal  of  San  Jose,  in  the  middle  of  which  Captain 
Kellett  discovered  a rocky  patch  with  less  than  3 ft.  of  water 
on  it.*  A very  remarkable  tree,  towering  above  all  the  others 
on  Galera  Island,  bears  from  it  N.  57°  40'  W.  (true)  distant 
9 miles.  The  Gulf  of  Panama  is  remarkable  for  baffling  winds, 
occasional  squalls,  frequent  and  long  calms,  rains  more  of  a 
drizzling  kind  than  those  that  fall  on  land,  opposing  currents, 
ripples,  freshes,  and  a general  disturbance  and  irregular  motion 
of  tlie  surface-water,  owing,  probably,  to  the  meeting  in  it  of 
the  cold  current  from  tlie  Peruvian  coast  with  the  great  Equa- 
torial counter-current.  The  autliorwas  thirteen  days  beating  out 
of  it  in  1849,  in  the  whaling  brig,  Norman^  oi  Nantucket, 
Captain  Gardiner,  bound  for  San  Francisco. 

The  Bay  or  Harbour  of  Panama,  which  is  called  Perico,  is 
sheltered  by  the  islands  of  Naos,  Flamenco,  Perico,  Taboga,  and 
Taboguilla.  Ships  of  any  burthen  lie  in  it  very  safe  under  the 
lee  of  any  of  those  islands,  at  the  distance  of  leagues  from 
the  shore.  It  is,  however,  ill  adapted  for  a packet  station,  as 
vessels  of  even  less  than  300  tons  have  to  lie  2 miles  to  seaward 
of  the  city,  and  are  obliged  to  discharge  their  cargoes  into  flat- 
bottomed  boats.  Though  the  anchorage  is  secure,  it  has  hap- 
pened that  all  the  ships  lying  there  have  been  stranded.  The 
tide  rises  and  falls  from  13  to  17  ft.  at  Panama.  It  is  high 
water  at  Taboga,  at  full  and  change,  at  3h.  16m.  The  greatest 
rise  of  tide  there  is  20  ft.  Close  to  the  shore  at  Panama  are  the 
Sulphur  and  Danaide  rocks.  Soon  after  the  completion  of  the 
Panama  Railroad,  a pier,  450  ft.  long,  was  constructed  at  the 
terminus,  and  steam-tugs  were  substituted  for  the  lighters  pre- 
viously used  for  transportation  between  ship  and  shore. 

Currents. 

During  strong  N.  winds,  the  cold  current  which  follows  the 
direction  of  the  coast  of  Peru,  after  passing  Cape  Blanco,  sets 
over  to  the  N.W.  and  W.N.W.  towards  the  Galapagos  Islands, 

* Seemann,  Dr.  Bertliold.  Narrative  of  the  Yoyage  of  H.M.S.  Herald. 
Reeve  and  Co. 


88 


T8TIIMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


and  causes  some  singular  effects  tlicrc  from  its  struggle  'with  the 
warm  waters  of  the  Pacific.  Near  that  Archipelago,  the  shores 
of  which  abound  in  animal  life,  and  the  tra(*t  ol'  sea  near  whicJi 
■was  the  greatest  whaling  station  in  the  Pacific,  some  remarkable 
veins  of  currents  may  be  observed.  Ca])tain  Fitzroy  says  that, 
when  the  Jhac^le  was  there  in  October,  1887,  the  surface  water 
on  one  side  of  Albemarle  Island  was  found  to  have  a tcm])eratiire 
of  80°  F.,  whilst  on  the  other  it  was  less  than  fi0°,  a surj)rising 
difference  in  the  Pacific,  where  the  variations  of  tem])erature  are 
usually  withiu  narrow  limits.  The  temperature  of  this  current 
being  too  low  for  the  zoophytes  exjdains  the  absence  of  coral 
reefs  round  the  Gala])agos.  The  current  is  not,  however,  at  all 
times  totally  deflected  at  Cape  Blanco;  for  it  sometimes  sets 
round  the  coast  to  the  N.  to  the  Pearl  Islands,  and  affords  great 
facilities  for  working  up  to  the  anchorage  off  Panama. 

Between  the  parallels  of  2(3°  S.  and  24°  N.  there  is  a current 
to  the  W.,  known  as  the  great  Ecjuatorial  current,  embracing 
the  whole  tract  of  the  Pacific  from  a little  S.  of  the  tro]>ic  of 
Capricorn  to  a little  N.  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  with  the 
exce})tion  of  that  between  5°  and  10°  N.  In  the  latter  space, 
which  is  the  zone  of  the  Ecjuatorial  calms  between  the  trade 
winds,  that  extend  across  the  entire  breadth  of  the  Pacific,  there  is 
a great  belt  of  water  having  a current  setting  with  considerable 
velocity  to  the  E.,  towards  the  biglit  of  the  isthmus,  and  called 
by  Mr.  Findlay*  the  Equatorial  Counter-current.  Thus  the 
current  system  seems  to  centre  in  the  Gidf  of  Panama.  The 
latter  current  and  that  from  the  coast  of  Peru,  which  set  into 
the  Gulf,  probably  find  their  way  out  round  Punta  Mala  and 
along  the  coast  of  Veraguas,  just  as  the  current  which  sets  into 
the  Golden  Horn  of  Constantinople  from  the  Bosphorus  runs 
out  round  Seraglio  Point  into  the  Sea  of  Marmora. 

Distances. 

Miles. 

Erom  Cruces  Poiub  Ciipica  Bay,  to  Cape  Marzo  . . 16 

Corredor  nioutli 24 

Paracuchiclii  do 29 

Jurador  do. 35 

Punta  Pinas 701- 

Caracoles  Point 82 

Escarpado  do 106 

Garacliine  do.  . . . . . • • _ • HO 

Punta  Brava,  round  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel  160 
Chiinan  mouth  186 

Cliepo  mouth 219 

Panama • .246 

* Findlay,  A.  G.,  Esq.  On  Currents.  Journal  of  the  Iloyal  Geographical 
Society,  vol.  xxiii. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


89 


Latitudes  and  Longitudes. 


Lat.  N. 

Long.  W. 

Cape  Marzo 

. G° 

50' 

77° 

40' 

Corredor  mouth  . 

. G 

5G 

Paracucliiclii  do. 

. 7 

2 30" 

77 

41 

Jurador  do. 

. 7 

G 

77 

45 

Garachine  Point  . 

. 8 

G 

78 

22 

30" 

Chepillo  Island  . 

. 8 

59  40 

79 

7 

40 

Panama 

. 8 

5G 

79 

31 

2 

Variations 

of  the  Compass  in  1848. 

In  Long.  78°  W. 

Lat.  4° 

10'  N. 

7°  40' 

E. 

5 

10 

7 35 

G 

15 

7 30 

81 

7 

10 

7 40 

Surveys. 

A portion  of  tins  coast  was  surveyed  from  1837  to  1839 
by  Sir  Edward  Belclier,  in  Her  Majesty’s  ships  Sulphur  and 
Starling.  The  remainder  was  finished  from  1846  to  1849  by 
Commander  Wood,  of  the  Pandora.,  and  Captain  Kellett,  of  the 
Herald,  by  whom  the  whole  coast  was  explored  from  the  San 
Juan  to  Punta  Burica,  the  boundary  between  New  Granada  and 
Costa  Bica. 


THE  DAEIEN  SHIP  CANAL. 

PIistory  of  the  Project. 

As  the  project  of  a ship  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Darien 
was  brought  before  the  public  fifteen  years  ago,  and  then 
dropped,  the  first  question  that  will  be  asked  is,  why  has  it  lain 
in  abeyance  since  then  ? It  must  be  premised  then,  that,  on 
his  return  from  a journey  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California,  in 
1849,  Dr.  Cullen  examined  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Panama 
and  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel  with  the  object  of  finding  a practi- 
cable entrance  for  a ship  canal,  and,  continuing  his  researches, 
entered  the  river  Savana,  and  discovered  the  route  about  to  be 
described.  In  spite  of  most  formidable  and  appalling  difficulties, 
he  made  a more  particular  examination  of  it  in  each  of  the  three 
following  years.  In  1852,  a short  reconnaissance  was  made  at 
each  side  by  Messrs.  Gisborne  and  Forde,  whom  Messrs.  Fox 
and  Henderson  and  Mr.  Thomas  Brassey  had  sent  out.  In 
1853,  in  consequence  of  their  favourable  report,  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Junction  Company,  of  London,  was  formed.  The 
directors  were : Lord  Wharncliffe,  chairman ; J.  Pemberton 
Heywood,  Esq.,  deputy-chairman  ; J.  S.  Brownrigg,  Ch. 


90 


ISTHMUS  OF  HAIHEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


Brownell,  T.  K.  Cram})ton,  E.  Cropper,  »I.  C.  l^wart,  G.  D’Olier 
Gowan,  W.  I.  Ilainlltoii,  Lewis  JI.  llaslewood,  II.  T.  IIo])e, 
lliii^li  Ilornbj,  Admiral  C.  B.  ^loorsom,  ('a])tain  Mackiiiiioii, 
Iv.M.,  A.  Montoya,  Ilis  Excellency  P'rancisco  de  Riveiro,  Ilis  Ex- 
cellency Ezccpiiel  Rojas,  Melvil  Wilson,  Alex.ander  Wilson, 
IMilner  Gibson,  M.P,,  and  Jkron  Antoine  Ivothscliild.  The 
bankers  were,  ]\Iessrs.  Ileywood,  Kennards,  ;nid  Co. ; the  solici- 
tors, Messrs.  J.  C.  and  11.  PTeslifield  ; the  olHcial  auditor,  tl.  E. 
Coleman,  Plsq. ; the  secretary.  Dr.  Black;  and  the  en^ineer-in- 
chief,  Lionel  Gisborne,  C.E.  The  offices  were  at  3(5,  Moorojite 
Street,  and  8,  New  Street,  S])i*inir  Gardens. 

Soon  after  the  formation  of  the  company.  Dr.  Cullen  a])plied 
for  permission  to  go  out  to  Darien  three  months  before  the  engi- 
neers, in  order  to  clear  a l)ush-])ath  along  the  line,  so  that  they 
might  have  room  to  carry  their  instruments;  but  his  recpiest  was 
refused.  He  then  ap])lied  on  two  occasions,  but  with  erpial  ill 
success,  for  authority  to  act  as  guide  to  the  ex])loring  party,  and 
to  negotiate  a treaty  of  friendship  with  the  Indians. 

In  December,  1853,  a large  staff  of  engineers,  most  amj)ly 
provided  with  money,  instruments,  and  necessaries  of  all  kinds, 
was  sent  out  by  the  company  to  survey  the  line;  and  three 
British,  a French,  and  an  American  ship  of  war  were  stationed 
in  the  harbours  to  assist  them.  However,  very  unfortunately 
for  all  concerned,  six  iveeks  before  their  arrival  on  the  coast  of 
JJarien,  Commander  J.  C.  Provost  landed  on  the  Pacific  side, 
and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  reach  the  Atlantic ; and, 
tivo  clays  before  their  arrival^  Lieutenant  Strain,  U.S.N.,  landed 
in  Caledonia  Bay,  on  the  Atlantic  side,  with  the  intention  of  cross- 
ing over  to  the  Pacific.  Thus,  instead  of  a single  well-arranged 
plan  for  making  an  impartial  and  thorough  examination  of  the 
route,  there  were  three  unconnected  explorations  in  different  and 
wrong  directions,  of  which  two  were  conducted  without  the  use 
of  compasses  ! or  even  bush-knives  ! ! and  not  one  was  brought  to 
a conclusion.  In  each  case,  moreover,  the  commanders  were 
guided  by  ^Gnlunteers,”  who  were  agents  sent  to  offer  their 
gratuitous  services  by  the  opposition  company,  namely,  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal  Company,  of  New  York,  the 
promoters  of  which— -F.  M.  Kelley,  Esq.,  George  Law,  Vander- 
bilt, &c. — proposed  to  cut  a canal  by  the  Atrato  route,  which 
Humboldt  had  recommended  on  the  authority  of  the  Biscayan 
pilot,  Gogueneche. 

Thus,  Commander  Provost  was  guided  by  Messrs.  Kennish 
and  Nelson,'^  and  Lieutenant  Strain  by  Messrs.  Avery  and 

Hoss,  Dr.,  II.M.S.  Virago,  llcport  of  the  Expedition  sent  to  cross  tlie 
Istliinus  of  Darien.  From  this  llcport,  which  was  forwarded  to  the  Director- 
General  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  Navy,  and  is  ])nblished  in  “ Over 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEH  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


91 


BoggSj  of  tlie  Atrato  Company,  and  also  by  Messrs.  Holcomb, 
Winthrop,  Forster,  and  Bird,  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company.^ 
Mr.  Holcomb  was  the  station-master  at  Aspinwall,  Mr.  Winthrop 
was  nephew  to  Aspinwall,  one  of  the  contractors,  and  Mr. 
Forster  was  editor  of  the  Aspimcall  Courier — a newspa])er  sup- 
ported by  the  Railroad  Company.  Lastly,  Mr.  Gisborne  placed 
himself  under  the  guidance  of  Colonel  Augustin  Codazzi,  who, 
although  in  the  service  of  the  New  Granada  Government,  as 
chief  of  the  Chorographic  Commission,  was  also  father-in-law  of 
Florentino  Gonzales,  a Doctor  of  Law,  who,  since  the  unfortu- 
nate fate  of  Seiior  Cardenas  in  the  Amazon,  was  sole  concession- 
aire of  the  Atrato  route.  Codazzi  was  likewise  an  engineer  of 
the  Atrato  Company,  and  had  just  sent  to  New  York  a most 
favourable  report  of  their  line. 

Although  not  one  of  the  above  gentlemen  had  ever  before  set 
foot  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  and  although  Dr.  Cullen  accom- 
panied Mr.  Gisborne,  yet,  as  the  directors  had  refused  to  give 
him  any  authority  or  position  in  the  conduct  of  the  expedition 
which  had  been  sent  out  to  promote  a project  that  had  originated 
with  him,  he  was  not  permitted  to  interfere  in  any  manner  what- 
ever, and  not  only  were  his  offers  to  act  as  guide  rejected,  but 
the  course  taken  was  directly  opposite  to  that  which  he  had 
pointed  out.t 

The  result  was  that  the  engineer-in-chief,  in  his  Reportf  to 
Lord  Wharncliffe,  dated  Her  Majesty’s  ship  Espiegle,  Caledonia 
Harbour,  April  4,  1854,  stated  that  a tunnel  3 miles  in  length 
would  be  necessary,  although  the  same  Report  concluded  as 
follows  : I am  quite  aware  that,  in  now  concluding  my  survey- 
ing operations,  § there  is  a great  deal  of  interesting  information  still 
wanting  and  that  my  examination  of  the  Isthmus  is  not  near  so 
perfect  as  I had  hoped  to  make  it.”  This,  indeed,  had  been  so 
manifest,  that  Commander  Parsons,  of  Her  Majesty’s  surveying 

Darien/’  a canal  would  seem  to  be  practicable  even  along  the  line  tnken  by 
Prevost — for  Dr.  Ross  says  that,  from  the  highest  point  reached,  estimated 
at  1200  to  1300  feet — “ we  overlooked  a deep  valley,  densely  wooded  and  ru7i- 
ning  m an  easterly  direction.  It  was  supposed  that  it  was  through  this  valley 
the  Atlantie  had  been  seen  from  the  tree.”  The  mountain  they  aseended 
was,  perhaps,  Putrigandi,  and  the  valley  may  have  been  between  it  and 
Navagandi. 

Headley,  Mr.  J.  T.  Narrative  of  Strain’s  Expedition,  in  Harper’s  New 
York  Magazine  for  Mareh,  April,  and  May,  1855. 

f “Over  Darien.  Reports  of  the  Mismanaged  Darien  Expedition,  with 
Suggestions  for  a Survey  by  Competent  Engineers,  and  an  Exploration  by 
Parties  with  Compasses.”  London : Effingham  Wilson,  1856.  There  is  a 
copy  in  the  British  Museum. 

X This  Report  was  never  published. 

§ This  can  only  be  regarded  as  a grandiloquent  euphuism,  or  fagon  deparler. 
There  was  no  survey,  nor  even  an  exploration. 


92 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


ship  Scorpion^  in  a letter  to  Dr.  Cullen,  dated  San  tJuan  de  Nica- 
ragua, May  15,  1854,  says,  in  allusion  to  Mr.  (lishorne’s 
opinion  as  to  the  necessity  for  a tunnel  : — ‘‘  Of  course  J shall  not 
consider  the  matter  thoroughly  settled  until  further  mireh.  is 
niadcT* 

The  same  o])lnion  of  the  iinpcrfect  and  ])artial  charact(*r  of 
the  inspection  of  the  country  then  made  was  ex])ressed  hy  Baron 
Ilumholdt,  M.  Malte-Brnir,  M.  Michel  Chevalier,  and  Mr.  T. 
C.  Vincent,  of  New  Park-street,  Southwark,  who  had  spent 
several  months  in  Bogota  examining  the  archives  there  in  search 
of  the  accounts  of  the  attempts  made  l)y  the  Si)aniards  to  open 
a road  across  Darien. 

More  recently,  I.  Gerstenberg,  Es([.,  F.R.G.S.,  in  the  discus- 
sion on  Mr.  Laurence  Olijdiant’s  pa})er  On  the  Payano  River,” 
read  before  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  on  the  24th  of 
A])ril,  18()5,  said  : The  only  route  that  I believe  to  he  practi- 
cable is  the  Darien  route.  . . . Dr.  Cullen  and  Commander 
Parsons  have  stated  that  there  is  a valley  running  through  the 
main  ridge  to  Caledonia  Harbour.  The  only  point  to  be  settled 
is  the  existence  of  this  valley,  which  subsequent  explorers  failed 
to  find,  because  they  did  not  wish  to  find,  it^  owing,  as  I believe,  to 
the  jealousy  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  and  of  the 
Concessionaires  of  the  Atrato  route,  who  had  rival  interests, 
and  consequently  did  not  desire  that  the  transverse  valley  should 
be  found.  In  the  hydrographical  map  of  Parsons’  ‘ Survey  of 
Caledonia  Harbour  and  Port  Escoces,’  he  gives  several  views  of 
the  Cordillera ; and  View  3 clearly  shows  that  the  Cordillera  at 
that  point  is  not  an  uninterrupted  chain,  but  is  broken  into  two 
separate  and  distinct  ridges,  between  which  a valley  may  natu- 
rally be  expected.” 

The  above-mentioned  report,  however,  arriving  just  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  in  the  Crimea,  determined  the  directors  to 
dissolve  the  company,  returning  the  shareholders  their  deposits 
without  any  deduction.  The  project,  in  consequence,  fell  to  the 
ground,  and  has  lain  in  abeyance  ever  since. 

It  will  be  found,  nevertheless,  upon  a survey  being  made  by 
competent  engineers,  sincerely  desirous  of  the  success  of  the  pro- 
ject, that,  by  following  the  course  laid  down  in  this  paper,  the 
necessity  for  a tunnel  can  be  avoided. 

The  Atlantic  Harbours. 

As  it  would  not  be  practicable  at  all  times  to  sail  into  a canal 
direct  from  the  open  sea,  safe  anchorage  must  first  be  obtained 

* Letters  on  the  Darien  Canal.  London  : Eflingliam  Wilson,  1857. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


93 


very  near  its  entrance,  and  that  opening  must  itself  be  perfectly 
protected  not  only  from  injury  from  land  floods,  but  from  the 
effects  of  storms,  from  the  surf  and  heavy  swell  of  the  sea,  and 
from  any  accumulation  of  sand,  mud,  or  shingle.  Delays, 
dangers,  difficulties,  and  expense  would  he  the  consequences  of 
using  a canal  not  provided  with  the  adjunct  of  a good  harbour 
at  each  end,  and  such  a canal  would  not  answer  the  require- 
ments of  commerce.  For  any  line,  therefore,  by  which  it  may 
be  proposed  to  effect  the  junction  of  the  two  oceans,  the  sine  qua 
non,  the  preliminary  and  indispensable  requisite,  is  that  it  should 
have  at  each  terminus  a good  harbour,  capable  of  affording 
secure  anchorage  at  all  times,  in  both  the  dry  and  the  rainy 
season,  safe  and  sheltered  from  all  winds,  having  sufficient  capa- 
city and  depth  of  water,  and  easy  of  ingress  and  egress.  The 
following  description  will,  perhaps,  he  sufficient  to  prove  that 
the  Darien  route  is  adequately  provided  with  secure  harbours  at 
each  end. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast  a series  of  good  anchorages  extends 
continuously  for  12  nautical  miles  from  S.E.  to  N.W.,  namely, 
Port  Escoces,  2^  ; Caledonia  Bay,  ; Caledonia  Harbour,  2^  ; 
and  the  Channel  of  Sassardi,  3J  miles  in  length.  All  these 
have  great  depth  of  water,  the  least  being  6 fathoms.  They 
are  so  extensive  and  (with  the  exception  of  Caledonia  Bay, 
which  is  an  open  roadstead)  so  perfectly  sheltered  that  whole 
fleets  might  ride  safely  in  them. 

Port  Escoces  is  a noble  harbour,  with  from  6 to  9 fathoms 
of  water  over  a bottom  of  sand,  except  in  its  innermost  part, 
where  the  water  shoals  to  3 fathoms.  It  extends  inwards  2^ 
miles,  with  a breadth  of  from  ^ to  ^ a mile.  It  is  very  safe, 
being  protected  from  the  winds  and  waves  by  a promontory,  on 
the  inner  side  of  which  the  Scotch  colonists  built  the  town  of 
New  Edinburgh  and  the  fort  of  St.  Andrew.  The  summit  of 
the  promontory  is  580  ft.  high,  and  the  hill  at  its  point  260  ft. 
Both  are  covered  with  forest.  The  latter  was  named  Patterson 
Hill  by  Parsons,  as  it  was  from  its  top  the  colonists  were  accus- 
tomed to  look  over  the  sea  in  the  evening,  in  the  direction  of 
Scotland.  The  author  was  the  first  to  point  out  the  site  of  the 
settlement,  and  in  1854  brought  Dr.  McDermott,  of  H.M.S. 
Espiegle,  to  search  for  the  canal  that  the  colonists  dug  round 
the  fort,  but  it  was  dark  when  they  reached  the  place.  Dr. 
McDermott  afterwards  returned  with  Commander  Parsons,  and 
they  found  the  canal  quite  perfect.  It  is  130  paces  in  length, 
cut  angularly  as  a fortification,  and  has  an  embankment  on  the 
inner  side.  Its  north  entry,  8 ft.  deep  and  12  ft.  wide,  is  cut 
through  rock.  They  dug  into  several  mounds,  having  the 
appearance  of  graves,  hut  could  find  nothing  : these  may  have 


94 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAHIEN  AND  THE  STTTP  CANAL. 


been  heaps  from  the  ruins  of  lionses,  and  tlie  cemetery  may  have 
been  at  some  distance  from  tlie  fort.  They  could  find  no  guns; 
probably  these  were  removed  by  the  Spaniards,  and  now,  per- 
haps, help  to  form  the  barrier  round  Fort  San  Jose,  at  Cartha- 
gena. 

Several  rivulets  fall  into  Port  Escoces,  and  offer  facilities  for 
watering.  Their  water,  and  that  of  the  rivers  of  Darien  in 
general,  is  clear,  cool,  sparkling,  and  delicious. 

The  entrance  into  Caledonia  Pay  is  between  Point  Escoces 
and  Tsla  del  Oro  or  Golden  Island,  wliich  liears  from  the  former 
N.  40°  W.,  distant  4 miles.  From  this  line  it  falls  inward 
If  mile.  It  is  clean,  and  has  great  depth  of  water.  The  greater 
part  of  its  shore  is  a beach,  near  the  middle  of  which  disembogue 
the  rivers  Aglaseniqua*  and  Aglatumati. 

Point  Escoces  is  7 miles  N.W.  f W.  (N.  48°  W.)  of  the 
point  at  the  entrance  of  Carreto  Harbour. 

Golden  Island  is  wooded  to  the  summit,  which  is  470  ft.  high, 
and  has  a cliffy  appearance  at  the  base  and  sides.  It  has  a 
rivulet  of  elear  water  and  a landing  place  at  the  south  side. 
Lionel  Wafer,  the  surgeon  of  the  Buccaneers,  and  Captain 
Party  Sharp  stopped  on  it  for  fifteen  days  in  the  year  1680. 
About  If  mile  S.  of  Golden  Island  is  a smaller  one,  named 
San  Augustin  or  Ascension,  on  which  there  is  a large  space 
covered  with  a mass  of  bricks  and  tiles,  the  ruins  of  a magazine 
which  the  Spaniards  built  in  1785,  and  from  which  it  derives  its 
Indian  name  of  Kinki  Topoo  or  gunpowder  island.  It  is  inte- 
resting as  being  the  place  where  the  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
Spaniards  and  Indians  was  signed  on  June  the  9th,  1787.  It 
was  cleared  in  1854  by  Captain  Hollins,  of  the  U.S.  corvette, 
Cyane,  to  receive  the  jackasses  which  Lieutenant  Strain,  U.S.N. 
had  brought  down  from  New  York,  under  the  erroneous  impres- 
sion that  there  was  a road  across  Darien,  by  which  his  party 
could  ride  over  to  the  Pacific ! Rather  more  than  a cable’s 
length  south  of  San  Augustin  is  Piedras  Islet,  so  named  from 
the  rocks  close  to  its  shores. 

In  Caledonia  Harbour,  between  San  Augustin  and  the  three 
large  Sassardi  Islands,  which  are  to  the  N.W.,  are  Dobbin  Cay, 
Espiegle,  Cyane,  and  Chimere  Islands,  and  Scorpion  Cay.  The 
four  last  were  named  by  Parsons  after  the  vessels  of  war  that 
were  engaged  on  the  Darien  expedition. 

The  Aglatumati  River  has  a course  of  about  12  miles  from 
S.E.  to  N.W.  Its  mouth  is  about  50  ft.  wide,  and  has  a bar 
with  very  little  water  on  it,  but  inside  there  is  a depth  of  8 ft. 
About  a mile  up  it  is  shallow  enough  in  the  dry  season  for 

A(jla  is  tlic  name  of  tlie  mountain  in  whieli  they  rise ; seniqua  means 
“ little,”  and  tumuli  “ big.”  Ayla  signifies  “ bones  of  men.” 


ISTHMUS  OP  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


95 


one  to  wade  along  it  knee  deep  ; but  in  the  rainy  season 
the  depth  is  considerable  and  the  current  very  strong,  and 
during  floods  it  rushes  along  with  great  impetuosity  and  a roar- 
ing noise.  At  its  mouth  there  are  flve  bamboo  huts,  in  one  of 
which  an  old  Indian,  whose  adopted  name  was  Kobinson, 
resided  in  1850.  On  the  arrival  of  the  expedition  the  Indians 
abandoned  them,  and  they  were  occupied  by  some  of  the  New 
Granadian  soldiers  and  convicts  brought  from  Carthagena  by 
Colonel  Oodazzi,  who  kept  them  there  in  a state  of  total  inaction. 
About  tliree  miles  up  the  Aglatumati  receives  a large  tributary  (the 
Chucurti)  on  the  left  hand  side,  and  on  the  point  between  them 
there  is  a rancho  or  shed  for  Indians  going  to  or  from  the 
Sucubti  or  the  Chueti  to  rest  at.  About  two  miles  higher  up  it 
is  joined  by  a small  stream  on  the  right  hand,  on  the  further 
bank  of  which  is  the  village  of  Agla,  consisting  of  about  eighteen 
huts,  with  a population  of  about  sixty.  It  had  just  been 
abandoned  when  Mr.  Gisborne  and  party  arrived  there,  the 
Indians  having  fled  through  fear  of  the  white  men.  The  prin- 
cipal man  of  the  place  was  Juan  Seva,  named  after  a Malaga 
man,  who  traded  for  twenty-eight  years  from  Carthagena  to 
the  Darien  coast,  but  was  so  much  afraid  of  the  Indians  that  he 
never  once  landed  on  it.  On  the  lower  bank  of  the  above 
stream  (Dos  Bocas)  there  is  a cacao  plantation,  from  which  a 
trail  leads  for  about  300  yards  to  the  foot  of  Mount  Agla,  which 
rises  quite  suddenly.  Its  summit  is  926  ft.  high,  and  very 
narrow,  and  the  ascent  to  it  is  rather  steep.  The  descent  is 
more  gradual  on  the  other  side  to  its  foot,  where  the  Foreti 
unites  with  the  Sucubti,  the  waters  of  which  flow  into  the 
Paciflc.  This  is  the  trail  by  which  the  Indians  cross  the 
Cordillera  from  Caledonia  Bay  to  Sucubti  village ; by  which 
they  guided  Vasco  Nuiiez  in  1513,  the  Buccaneers  in  1680, 
and.  the  Spanish  Adjutant,  Manuel  deMilla  Santa  Ella  in  1788. 
It  was  by  the  same  trail  that  Lieutenant  Strain  crossed  on  the 
23rd  of  January,  and  ]\Ii’.  Gisborne,  on  the  7th  of  February, 
1854,  and  it  was  through  Mount  Agla  that  Mr.  Gisborne  re- 
ported that  a tunnel  would  be  necessary.  But  this  is  not  the 
line  that  had  been  proposed  by  Dr.  Cullen,  which,  as  will  be 
explained,  is  some  miles  to  the  N.W.  of  the  trail. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Aglatunijiti,  from  whence  Vasco  Nunez 
had  started  on  his  memorable  journey,  the  settlement  of  Ada  or 
Agla  was  founded  by  Gabriel  de  Bojas  in  1514.  It  was  forti- 
fied in  1516  by  the  orders  of  Pedrarias  Davila,  but  was  aban- 
doned in  1532  for  Nombre  de  Dios,  whence  the  Spaniards 
opened  a road  through  the  bush  to  Panama.  After  Drake’s  ex- 
pedition, the  Atlantic  terminus  of  the  transit  route  was  removed 
to  Portobello,  which  was  given  up  for  Chagres,  and  that,  in 


96 


ISTTTMUS  OF  DATIIEN  AND  THE  STTIF  CANAL. 


turn,  for  As])iiiwall  or  Colon,  the  terminus  of  tlic  Panama  Pail- 
road.  The  liuccaneers,  in  1()8(),  under  I>asil  Piimro.se,  Party 
Sharp,  William  Damjiier,  and  Pichard  Sawkins,  witli  -svliom  was 
the  surgeon,  Lionel  V\\afer,  of  London,  made  the  Aglatumati 
mouth*  the  starting  jioint  of  their  ex])e(iition  to  the  South  Sen. 
The  same  jilace  was  afterwards  selected  by  (General  Arehalo  for 
the  erection  of  the  fort  of  San  Fernando  de  (hirolinn,  built  in 
1785  and  abandoned  in  1790,  the  site  of  which  is  indicated  by 
a grove  of  cocoa-nut  trees,  and  some  tiles  and  bricks.  A hirge 
fpiantity  of  the  latter  was  once  brought  to  Carthagena  by  Juan 
Seva,  whose  father-in-law  built  a house  with  them. 

The  Aglaseniqua  is  20  ft.  wide  at  its  mouth,  which  has  a bar 
with  only  2 ft.  of  water  on  it.  Inside,  the  depth  is  8 ft.  and  half 
a mile  uj)  5 ft.  Its  course  from  the  mountain  is  short  and 
direct,  and  it  is  totally  uninhabited.  Poth  this  river  and  the 
Aglatumati  were  traced  up  to  their  sources  by  different  parties, 
in  the  vain  expectation  of  finding  a low  pass  from  them  across  the 
Cordillera. 

Caledonia  IIahbour,  a most  secure  haven,  extends  from  a 
line  drawm  between  Golden  Island,  Piedras  Islet,  and  San 
Fulgencio  Point  to  the  Mangrove  Cays  to  the  west.  Its  S.E. 
entrance  is  off  and  on,  with  four  cables’  length  in  extent  from 
edge  to  edge,  and  with  from  9 to  12  fathoms  depth  on  oaze  ; and 
further  in,  from  8 to  10  fathoms.  Between  the  turn  of  the 
bank  off  Piedras  Islet  and  Caledonia  Bay,  the  depth  is  from 
7 to  15  fathoms;  and  the  piece  of  sea  which  intervenes  between 
this  harbour  and  Port  Escoces  is  of  a good  deptli ; but  at  a short 
mile  S.E.  by  E.  ^ E.  (S.  55°  E.)  from  Piedras  Islet  the  sea 
breaks  when  the  breeze  blows  fresh.  This  harbour  is  sheltered 
from  the  winds  and  seas  of  both  seasons,  and  has  good  depth 
throughout.  It  is  | of  a mile  wide,  and  2^  miles  in  extent  to  a 
narrrow  bar  which  separates  it  from  Sassardi  Channel. 

The  point  of  San  Fulgencio  is  salient,  scarped,  and  clean. 
Immediately  behind  it  rises  an  isolated  hill,  200  ft.  high,  which 
Parsons  named  Mount  Vernon.  Just  inland  of  it  Captain 
Hollins  bored  a well  through  a stratum  of  dolomite  or  magnesian 
limestone. 

Immediately  inside,  or  to  the  N.W.  of  San  Fulgencio  Point, 
is  an  indent  or  little  bay  which  falls  inwards  half  a mile  from  a 
line  drawn  between  San  Fulgencio  and  its  western  point,  and  is 
a mile  in  length  from  S.E.  to  N.W.  Its  western  side  is  bordered 
by  some  mangrove  cays.  This  haven  is  so  snug  ” that  it 
would  be  the  most  eligible  place  for  the  entrance  of  the  canal. 
To  adapt  it  for  the  passage  of  ships,  it  would  be  necessary  to 

* In  1704,  some  Frcnclimcn  settled  there,  but  were  soon  afterwards  mas- 
sacred by  the  liidhuis. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


97 


remove  a few  little  shoals,  and  to  deepen  it  to  30  ft.  for  a quarter 
of  a mile  from  the  shore,  in  which  space  it  has  only  from  12  to 
24  ft.  of  water.  Immediately  Avestward  of  it,  however,  the 
depth  close  in  shore  is  much  greater.  The  inner  part  of  its 
western  extremity  is  in  Lat.  8°  53'  45"  N.,  Lon.  77°  43'  30"  W. 

At  the  N.W.  end  of  Caledonia  Harbour,  2|  miles  N.W.  of 
Fulgencio  Point,  and  in  a line  with  the  bar  which  separates  it 
from  the  channel  of  Sassardi,  a considerable  river,  with  8 ft.  of 
water  at  its  mouth,  falls  into  the  harbour.  This  river  traverses 
the  valley  between  Agla  and  Sassardi,  the  parallel  mountains  of 
which  the  Cordillera,  inland  of  Caledonia  Harbour,  consists. 
The  water-shed  between  it  and  the  Sucubti  is  the  lowest  summit 
level  between  the  oceans,  and  therefore,  the  careful  examination 
of  this  river  will  be  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  survey 
about  to  be  made. 

Captain  Marivault,  of  the  French  frigate,  Xwcz/er,  who  visited 
Caledonia  Harbour  in  1860,  says  of  it : This  harbour  is  mag- 
nificent, and  no  one  could  desire  a better  point  for  the  entrance 
of  a ship  canal.  To  the  north  of  San  Fulgencio  Point  tlie  sea 
is  perfectly  calm.” 

The  Channel  of  Sassardi  is  between  the  mainland  and  the 
three  Sassardi  islands,  the  aggregate  length  of  which  is  3|  miles. 
Its  entrance,  f of  a mile  wide,  is  between  the  point  of  the  N.W. 
island  and  the  Fronton  of  Sassardi.  The  latter  is  a round, 
scarped  promontory  surrounded  by  reefs  close  to  the  shore.  The 
total  length  of  the  channel  from  the  bar  between  it  and  Cale- 
donia Harbour  to  its  N.W.  end  is  3J  miles.  Commander  Par- 
sons says,  in  his  Sailing  Directions:” — Sassardi  Harbour  is  a 
fine  sheet  of  water,  being  H mile  long  and  J of  a mile  wide, 
with  an  average  depth  of  6 fathoms  throughout,  excepting  a few 
shoals  nearly  awash.  It  is  joined  to  Caledonia  Harbour  by  a 
narrow  bar  of  12  ft.  This  Mr.  Gisborne  bored,  and  found  it 
could  be  easily  removed,  having  penetrated  into  marl  15  ft.  If 
cut  through  it  would  make  a clear  communication,  with  the 
advantage  of  a double  entry  to  the  harbour.”  Into  its  N.W. 
extremity  falls  the  small  river  Sassardi,  at  the  mouth  of  which 
is  the  village  of  the  same  name,  consisting  of  fifteen  huts,  with 
a population  of  about  sixty  Indians,  the  chief  of  whom  was  for- 
merly a very  old  man,  named  John  Bull,  who  was  succeeded  by 
Denis ; the  latter  as  before  stated,  died  in  1861.  Between  it 
and  the  river  of  Caledonia  Harbour,  two  other  streams  fall  into 
the  channel,  one  of  them  being  from  6 to  10  ft.  deep  at  its 
mouth,  the  water  in  which  is  salt. 

The  engineer  will  have  a wide  scope  for  selecting  a locality 
for  the  entrance  of  the  canal,  which  may  open  anywhere  in 
Caledonia  Harbour  or  the  channel  of  Sassardi.  Parsons  says : 

H 


98 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAHTEN  AND  TTTE  RTTTP  CANAL. 


There  are  several  points  wliieli  .are  favour.able  for  the  entry  of 
a ship  canal,  Iniving  deep  w.atcr  in  close  ])roxiinity  to  the  shore, 
with  ])rotection  outside.”  Th.at  which  Dr.  Cullen  recommends 
is  the  bight  N.W.  of  San  Fulgencio  Point.  In  Caledonia  Bay, 
.and  Port  Escoces,  there  arc  also  several  ])oints  witli  from  0 to 
9 fathoms,  so  near  the  shore  th.at  vessels  might  lie  there  .as  close 
to  the  land  as  they  c.an  in  the  Bosphorus;  hut  they  are  out  of  the 
way  and  not  sufficiently  [)rotectcd. 

The  rise  of  tide  in  the  Atlantic  harbour  is  1 ft.  G in.  s])rings, 
Oft.  6 in.  neaps.  High  water,  full  and  change  11  h.  40 m. 

Pacific  IIarboues. — The  Gulf  of  San  Miguel. 

The  harbours  on  the  Pacific  arc  even  superior  to  those  on  the 
Atl.antic  side.  The  outer  one  is  the  in.agnificent  Gulf  of  San 
^Miguel,  which  is  peculiarly  ad.apted  by  its  position  and  natural 
advantages  to  afford  a safe  and  noble  a})])roach  to  the  future 
c.anal.  It  runs  far  inland,  has  great  depth,  and  capacity  suf- 
ficient for  a large  fleet.  Its  entrance  is  just  outside  the  Gulf  of 
Panama,  a great  advant.age,  since  shi])s  bound  to  or  from  the 
Pacific  would  entirely  avoid  the  difficult  and  baffling  n.avigation 
of  that  gulf,  already  alluded  to.  It  is  15  miles  across  between 
the  points  at  its  entrance,  and  its  extent  inwards,  or  to  the 
N.E.,  is  22  miles.  The  least  deptli  is  6 fathoms,  and  through- 
out the  greatest  part  of  its  extent  the  soundings  vary  from  8 to 
17  fathoms.  The  tide  rises  in  it  from  18  to  24  ft.,  runs  5 knots 
an  hour,  and  ebbs  and  flows  N.E.  and  S.W.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  a promontory  2 miles  from  E.  to  W.,  the  inner  point 
being  Cape  San  Lorenzo,  and  the  west  or  outer  one,  Punta 
Brava,  which  is  78  miles  S.E.  by  E.  ^ E.  of  Panama.  One  mile 
S.  of  it  is  a shoal,  called  El  Buey  (the  ox),  which  is  1^  mile 
broad  and  i a mile  long,  with  6 fathoms  close  to  it.  Though 
out  of  the  track  of  vessels,  this  should  be  removed  as  soon  as 
the  works  on  the  canal  shall  have  commenced.  The  boundary 
of  the  entrance  on  the  S.  is  Cape  Garachine,  a bold  headland, 
easily  distinguishable  from  sea.  Inside  of  it  there  is  a bay  of 
the  same  name,  which  offers  facilities  for  c.areening ; and  behind 
it  rises  Mount  Garachine,  about  2500  ft.  high,  said  to  be  rich  in 
oro  de  veta,  or  gold  in  veins.  The  village  of  Garachine,  inha- 
bited by  162  negroes,  is  at  the  mouth  of  a little  river  in  the  bay. 
At  the  inner  end  of  the  latter  the  shores  of  the  gulf  approach, 
its  width  diminishing  to  7 miles  between  Cape  San  Lorenzo  and 
Morro  Patino.  It  then  increases  to  12  miles,  and  again  dimi- 
nishes as  far  as  Boca  Chica  and  Boca  Gr.ande,  the  mouths  of 
the  Tuyra,  the  principal  river  of  Darien.  These  discharge  them- 
selves, 22  miles  from  its  entrance,  into  its  eastern  extremity. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL.  99 

wliicli  is  a bay  formed  by  the  islands  of  San  Diego,  and  called 
Boca  de  Provincia,  or  Ensenada  del  Darien.  There  are  some 
islands  in  the  gulf,  as  Iguana,  Cedros,  San  Diego,  &c. ; but 
they  are  all  safe  of  approach,  and  have  deep  water  all  round 
them.  The  rivers  Congo,  Sucio,  and  another  tidal  creek, 
Cucunati,  Cupunati,  Buenavista,  Escudero,  and  San  Miguel 
fall  into  it  on  the  N. ; the  Guaca,  Taimita,  Sambu,  Pinuguilla, 
Garachine,  and  San  Antonio,  into  Garachin6  Bay;  and  the 
Mogue}^  and  Sosogana,  into  JPlaya  Guadarra,  a bay  inside  of 
Morro  Patino,  on  the  S. ; whilst  the  Tuyra  opens  into  it  on  the 
E.  On  the  Sambu,  at  the  sources  of  which  gold  has  been 
found,  there  was  a hacienda  or  estate  belonging  to  Seiior  Ber- 
mudez, of  Panama.  At  Taimita  mouth  there  lived  some  years 
ago,  like  a hermit,  a white  man  from  Venezuela,  named  Fer- 
nando Melo.  These  and  Garachine  village  are  the  only  inha- 
bited places.  The  Congo  is  the  river  which  Wafer  ascended 
on  his  return  in  1681.  From  it  Lacenta,  the  Indian  chief, 
guided  him  to  the  Chepo,  and  thence  across  a very  lofty  range 
of  the  Cordillera  to  the  mouth  of  the  Concepcion,  near  San 
Bias  Bay,  and  60  miles  N.W.  of  Caledonia  Harbour.  This 
gulf  was  named  San  Miguel  by  Vasco  Nunez,  because  he  dis- 
covered it  on  St.  Michael’s  day,  the  29th  of  September,  1513. 

The  Estuary  of  the  Tuyra  or  Inner  Harbour  of 

Darien. 

Inside  the  mouths  of  the  Tuyra  is  the  estuary  formed  by  the 
united  streams  of  the  Tuyra  and  the  Savana,  which  falls  into 
it  from  the  N.  It  is  8 miles  in  length,  4 miles  wide  opposite 
the  Savana  mouth,  and  has  a depth  of  13  fathoms  at  low  water. 
Boca  Chica  and  Boca  Grande,  by  which  it  discharges  itself, 
have  each  a depth  of  12  fathoms  at  low  water.  This  inner 
harbour  is  perfectly  landlocked.  The  Emperor  of  the  French, 
at  the  author’s  last  audience  with  him,  at  the  Palace  of  St.  Cloud, 
on  the  30th  of  October,  1859,  was  much  struck  with  its  advan- 
tageous position  and  security,  and  suggested  that  it  should  be 
named  Port  Interieur  du  Darien.”  Boca  Chica  Island,  which 
separates  the  mouths,  is  around,  conical  hill,  about  250  ft.  high, 
wooded  to  the  summit,  on  which  there  are  the  ruins  of  a fort 
built  about  1788.  In  1849,  Fernando,  or  Manchakala,  a negro 
who  left  Pinogana  in  consequence  of  Mr.  Hossack’s  claiming 
all  his  services  in  payment  of  a debt,  settled  on  it  with  his  sons 
and  grandchildren,  being  there  out  of  the  reach  of  the  corregidor. 
On  the  N.  bank  of  the  Tuyra,  near  the  E.  point  of  the  Savana 
mouth,  there  was  once  a settlement  called  Escuchadero  (the 

H 2 


1 


100 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SIIIF  CANAL. 


listening  ])lace  or  tlie  sentinel’s  ])ost).  The  scenery  of  the  hanks 
of  the  estuary  is  magnificent. 

'J'he  above  details  will,  perhaps,  be  snfiicient  to  prove  that  the 
harbours  at  each  end  of  the  line  have  all  the  recpiisites  of  safe 
anchorages — security,  depth  of  water,  capacity,  and  facility  of 
ingress  and  egress,  and  that  they  are  admirably  adaj)ted  for  the 
termini  of  a grand  interoccanic  navigation.  The  soundings, 
bearings,  &c.,  will  be  found  in  the  ‘^Survey  of  Caledonia  Har- 
bour and  Port  Escoccs,”  * with  sailing  directions  accompanying, 
by  Commander  Parsons,  of  If.  M.  Surveying  Shi]),  Scorpion; 
and  the  Survey  of  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,”  by  Ca])tain  Kellett, 
of  II.M.S.  Herald,  in  Sheet  1,  West  Coast,  Central  America, 
both  published  by  the  Hydrographic  office  of  the  Admiralty,  in 
1854. 


The  Savana  River. 

Three  miles  above  the  mouths  of  the  Tuyra  is  the  W.  point 
of  the  river  Savana,  or  Chapurti,  wdiich  opens  into  the  estuary. 
From  thence  to  Nisperal,t  the  E.  point,  the  width  of  its  mouth 
is  2 miles.  The  depth  there  is  12  fathoms  at  low  water,  and 
the  rise  of  tide  is  considerable ; the  W.  point,  about  500  ft.  high, 
is  bold  and  bluff ; the  E.  point  is  low.  The  Savana  is  a noble 
river,  remarkable  for  the  directness  of  its  course  from  its  mouth 
up  to  the  confluence  of  the  Lara  with  it,  a distance  of  16  Eng- 
lish miles.  Up  to  that  point  it  is  quite  free  from  sand-banks, 
rocks,  shoals,  playas  or  sandy  beaches,  sinuosities,  sudden  bends, 
deep  elbows,  snags,  or  obstructions  of  any  kind.  Its  banks, 
elevated  several  feet  above  the  water,  are  never  inundated  or 
swampy.  The  endemic  remittent  and  intermittent  fevers,  which 
are  caused  by  the  malarious  miasmata  from  drowned  lands, 
would,  therefore,  not  be  likely  to  occur  in  any  settlements  that 
may  be  established  on  its  banks.  It  must  not  be  inferred  that 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien  is  unhealthy,  because  Portobello,  Chagres, 
and  Aspinwall,  the  only  frequented  places  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  are  sickly.  Those  towns  are  built  on  swampy  ground 
backed  by  mountains,  in  a most  unfavourable  situation  in  a 
sanitary  point  of  view,  their  convenience  for  commerce  having 
been  exclusively  considered  in  the  selection  of  their  sites.  A 
convincing  and  most  agreeable  proof  of  the  freedom  of  the 
banks  of  the  Savana  from  swamp  is  the  total  absence  of  mos- 

* To  be  had  at  Stanford’s,  in  Charing  Cross ; or  Potter’s,  in  the  Poultry, 
price  2s.  Gd. 

f Nispcral  signifies  an  orchard  of  nispero  or  sapodillo  trees  {Sapota  achras, 
Sapotaccai).  The  nispero,  a delicious  fruit,  although  commonly  called  a 
inedlar,  is  quite  unlike  the  English  medlar. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL.  101 

quitoes,  insects  which  invariably  swarm  wherever  the  ground  is 
marshy. 

A range  of  hills,  about  500  ft.  high,  runs  parallel  to  each 
bank  for  nearly  15  miles  up.  The  plain  on  each  side  between 
the  hills  and  the  river  is  2 or  3 miles  wide,  except  near  its 
mouth,  where  they  approach  the  W.  bank  much  nearer,  and  ter- 
minate a bluff  behind  the  point ; whilst  on  the  E.  side  they  recede 
farther  off.  Just  below  the  mouth  of  the  Lara,  and  above  a 
wide  part  of  the  river,  called  Revesa  de  Piriaki,  that  near  the 
E.  bank  terminates  in  Cerro  Piriaki,  an  isolated,  conical  hill, 
about  300  ft.  high.  Above  it  there  is  no  hill  near  either 
bank. 

The  country  on  both  sides  is  totally  uninhabited ; nevertheless, 
most  of  the  places  have  Indian  names : thus  the  Savana  is 
called  Chapurti,  the  W.  Point,  Pacomalica,  &c. 

The  first  reach,  7 miles  in  length,  from  its  mouth  to  the 
junction  of  the  Areti  with  it,  has  a width  of  1^  mile.  Its 
direction  is  N.  true.  The  depth  in  it  gradually  diminishes  from 
12  to  7 fathoms.  A little  above  the  mouth,  on  the  W.  bank,  is 
Punta  Machete,  which  has  the  small  shoal  of  Bajo  Grande 
above  it,  and  that  of  Bajo  Chico  below  it.  Both  are  quite  close 
to  the  bank  and  have  beds  of  oysters  on  them.  Fresh  water 
may  be  obtained  in  the  driest  season  from  the  Quebradas  La- 
guadilla  and  La  Monera,  which  open  on  the  W.  bank.  The 
Iglesias  falls  into  this  reach  from  the  E.,  and  fresh  water  may 
be  procured  in  both  seasons  from  Quebrada  de  Tigre,  one  of  its 
tributaries.  Along  the  N.  bank  of  the  Iglesias  there  is  a ridge 
of  hills,  the  Cerro  Fichichi,  on  the  extremity  of  which,  near 
the  angle  between  the  Tuyra  and  the  Chuquanaqua,  there  was 
once  a settlement,  which  was  abandoned  years  ago ; the  last  sur- 
vivor of  its  former  inhabitants  was  a negro  named  Marcellino. 

The  second  reach  has  several  islands  in  it,  which  are  all  safe 
of  approach.  It  extends  from  the  Areti  mouth  to  the  most 
northern  of  the  islands,  3 miles  in  a N.N.W.  direction.  Its 
average  width  is  about  1 mile,  and  its  depth  6 fathoms.  The 
Areti  is  a large  stream,  and  rises  in  the  Fichichi  range.  Oppo- 
site its  mouth,  Zuniga,  a negro  from  Chapigana,  squatted  in 
1850,  and  called  his  place  Quintin ; but  the  total  absence  of 
society  soon  obliged  him  to  quit  it.  The  principal  branch  of  the 
Areti  is  the  Tinti. 

The  third,  Calle  Larga,  or  long  reach,  which  extends  from 
the  most  northern  island  to  the  mouth  of  the  Lara,  is  6 miles  in 
length,  and  has  a N.N.W.  course.  It  is  very  direct,  not  having 
the  slightest  bend.  The  water  shoals  in  it  from  b to  5 fathoms, 
which  is  the  depth  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lara,  where  there  is  a 
rise  of  tide  of  12  ft.  or  14  ft.  Corotu,  an  esteroj  or  creek,  into 


102 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAIIIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


wliicli  tlie  tide  flows,  Corredor,  and  otlicr  streams,  open  on  its 
W.  bank.  Tlie  journey  from  tlie  Savana  moutli  to  tlie  con- 
fluence of  tlie  Lara  can  be  made  with  the  tide  in  two  hours. 

Two  miles  above  the  Lara,  but  on  the  W.,  or  oyijiosite,  bank, 
is  the  mouth  of  the  Matumap:anti.  Half  a mile  above  it  a larn-e 
qiiipo  tree  stands  conspicuous  on  the  W.  bank,  towering  above 
the  adjacent  forest.  Half  a mile  higher  up  a patch  of  dense, 
scrubby  brusliwood,  without  trees,  indicates  the  site  of  Fuerte 
del  Principe,  or  Puerto  Principe,  a military  post  established  by 
the  Sjianiards  in  1785,  with  the  object  of  making  a road 
across  the  isthmus,  from  thence  to  the  fort  of  Cai'olina,  in  (Cale- 
donia Bay.  But  the  Indians  of  the  Atlantic  coast  opyiosed  the 
project,  and  the  forts  were  abandoned  in  1790,  as  ajiyiears  from 
a despatch  from  Don  Francisco  Ayala,  Governor  ad  interim  of 
Darien,  dated  Chajngana,  Oct.  17,  1790,  in  which  lie  says  he 
left  Principe  the  day  before,  having  demolished  the  establish- 
ment, even  the  nails  of  which  he  took  away,  and  brought  off  the 
artillery,  ammunition,  cattle,  &c.  This  despatch  was  forwarded 
by  Joseph  Domas  y Vallez,  the  Governor  of  Panama,  to  Antonio 
Caballero  y Gongora,  the  Viceroy  and  Archbishoj)  of  New  Gra- 
nada, at  Bogota.  The  fort  was  built  on  a tongue  of  land  between 
the  Ocubti  and  the  Principe,  which  oyien  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Savana.  The  only  remains  to  be  found  are  some  fragments  of 
botijas,  or  water-jars.  In  1851  there  were  at  Yavisa  three 
negroes,  named  Mascareno,  Pedro  Louriano  Galvez,  and  Lere, 
who  were  born  at  Principe,  where  their  fathers  were  soldiers. 
Mascareno  was  nearly  five  years  old  when  it  was  abandoned. 
They  said  that  the  garrison,  consisting  of  150  men,  went  from 
thence  to  Yavisa,  and  that  there  were  occasionally  as  many  as 
400  men  at  Principe.  They  also  stated  that  the  evening  gun 
fired  at  Carolina  could  be  heard  at  Principe.  The  only  thing 
which  the  Spaniards  effected  during  their  stay  was  the  opening  of 
a bush-path  from  Yzquinti,  the  upper  branch  of  the  Savana,  to 
Yzquinti,  a branch  of  the  Chuquanaqua,  which  was  done  by 
Don  Luis  Carrera,  Captain  of  Grenadiers  of  La  Princesa,  a 
regiment  of  European  Spaniards,  who  was  also  commandant  of 
the  fort.  He  was  assisted  by  Don  Juan  Ximenes  Donoso, 
Captain  of  Engineers ; and  the  work  was  done  by  the  directions 
of  Lieutenant-Colonel  Don  Andres  de  Ariza,  Governor  of 
Darien.  It  was  by  this  path  that  Sergeant  Gabriel  Morales 
returned  from  his  unsuccessful  expedition  in  search  of  Indians, 
in  1786.  Tlie  only  Spaniard  who  crossed  the  Isthmus  during 
the  occupation  of  the  forts  was  the  adjutant,  Don  Manuel  de 
Mil  la  Santa  Ella,  who  went  across  in  3 days’  walk  from  Caro- 
lina to  Principe,  in  1788,  guided  by  a Sucubti  man,  and  under 


ISTHMUS  OP  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


103 


the  safe  conduct  of  Suspani,  or  Urrucliurcliu,  the  Chief  of 
Sucubti.  Finding  that  he  had  been  tracked  by  hostile  Indians 
to  the  precincts  of  the  fort,  he  did  not  deem  it  prudent  to  return 
the  same  way,  but  went  back  via  Panama  and  Portobello.  No 
second  attempt  was  made. 

From  Lara  mouth  to  Principe  the  course  is  nearly  N.,  and  the 
river  becomes  somewhat  tortuous,  with  some  islets  separated  by 
deep  channels.  At  Principe  the  depth  is  3 fathoms,  and  the 
rise  of  tide  about  6 ft.  The  river  is  crossed  there  by  a ledge  of 
slate,  visible  when  the  water  is  low.  Two  miles  above  Principe, 
on  the  W.  bank,  is  the  mouth  of  La  Villa.  A little  higher  up, 
on  the  opposite  bank,  a rivulet  falls  into  the  Savana;  by  the 
side  of  it  there  was  once  a path,  called  C amino  de  Caobana 
(the  road  of  the  mahogany  tree),  which  was,  probably,  made 
by  the  Spaniards  for  the  purpose  of  hauling  out  mahogany. 
About  ^ a mile  higher  up  the  river  is  obstructed  by  ledges  of 
a slate  or  coarse  argillaceous  schist,  called  pizarra  in  Spain,  and 
killas  in  Cornwal],  which  cross  it  diagonally  at  several  points 
for  a considerable  distance  up.  Between  these  ledges  there  are 
reaches  with  great  depth  and  a slack  current.  The  tide  reaches 
up  to  the  first  falls  caused  by  them,  or  about  22  miles  above  the 
Savana  mouth,  but  only  flows  for  an  hour.  About  2 miles 
above  La  Villa,  also  on  the  W.  bank,  is  the  mouth  of  the 
Canasas,  so  named  from  a thorny  species  of  bamboo,  of  which 
there  are  impenetrable  thickets  in  the  vicinity.  About  a century 
ago,  when  the  Indians  were  more  numerous,  there  was  a trail 
from  thence  to  the  Canasas,  a branch  of  the  upper  Chepo,  by 
which  hunters  used  to  pass  in  three  days.  Canoes  can  go  up  the 
Savana  for  2 days’  journey  to  theN.  of  the  Canasas.  From  its 
head  stream,  Yzquinti,  to  a river  of  the  same  name,  which  flows 
from  S.W.  to  N.E.  into  the  Chaquanaqua,  the  distance  is  only 
3 miles. 

In  fine,  there  is  an  easy  and  uninterrupted  navigation  for 
vessels  of  the  greatest  draught  of  water  all  the  way  from  the 
confluence  of  the  Lara  with  the  Savana  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
It  is,  then,  into  the  Lara,  at  or  above  its  mouth,  that  the  Pacific 
entrance  of  the  future  canal  should  open. 

The  Line. 

Premising  that,  as  already  stated,  the  whole  isthmus  is  covered 
throughout  with  a dense  primeval  forest,  extending  from  the 
summits  of  the  highest  mountains  to  the  very  edge  of  the  sea, 
and  broken  only  by  the  courses  of  the  rivers,  which  are  very 
numerous,  the  line  from  Caledonia  Harbour  to  the  mouth  of  the 


104 


ISTTTMTIR  OF  OAKTFN  AND  TITF  RTTTP  CANAL. 


Lara  may  be  divided  into  six  parts,  •wliicli,  witli  tliemean  courses 
by  compass,  and  the  distances  in  Knglisli  miles  between  the 
principal  points  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Tlie  line  crosses  a ])lain  extending  from  the  S.^V^.  extre- 
mity of  the  bight  in  Caledonia  Harbour  to  the  entrance  of  a 
valley  between  Agla  Mountain,  on  the  S.K.  and  Sassardi  Moun- 
tain, on  the  N.W. — 2 miles  S.  by  W.  W.  (S.S.W.  true.) 

2.  Through  the  valley,  miles  S.E.  by  S.  ^ S.  (S.S.E.  true.) 
On  the  way  the  line  strikes  upon  the  head  of  the  Sucubti. 

3.  Down  the  Sucubti  to  the  site  of  the  abandoned  hamlet, 
2J  miles,  S.  f E.  (S.  trne.)  Canoes  can  comeu])  to  the  haiidet, 
and  even  a cou])le  of  miles  above  it,  and  can  descend  from  thence 
to  the  Pacific,  via  the  Chuquanacpia  and  the  Tuyra. 

4.  From  the  hamlet  down  the  l)ed  of  the  riv^er  to  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Asnati  with  it,  7 miles  W.S.W.  (W.  by  S.  ^ S. 
true.)  Ill  this  stage  the  Napsati  falls  into  the  Sucubti,  2^  miles 
above  the  Asnati. 

5.  From  the  Asnati  mouth  the  line  continues  to  follow  the 
Sucubti  down  to  its  confluence  with  the  Chuquanafpia,  on  the 
E.  bank  of  which  it  opens — ll-i-  miles,  W.  J N.  (W.  by  N.  J N. 
true.) 

6.  From*  the  W.  bank  of  the  Chuquanaqua,  opposite  the 
Sucubti  mouth,  and  below  the  Artuganti  and  La  Paz  mouths, 
to  the  confluence  of  the  Lara  with  the  Savana,  it  traverses  the 
forest  for  the  distance  of  15  J miles  S.AY.  by  W.  \ W.  (W.S.W. 
true.) 

The  length  of  the  line  is  42  English  miles,  from  which  at 
least  3 may  be  deducted  for  the  windings  of  the  Sucubti,  which 
would  be  cut  across.  It  runs  for  21^  miles  along  the  bed  of 
that  river,  the  lower  12  of  which  are  pretty  direct,  and  would 
admit  of  being  canalised  by  means  of  dams  and  embankments, 
for  a moderate  outlay,  leaving  27  miles  for  the  length  of  canal 
required.  The  entire  transit  route  from  sea  to  sea  will  then 
consist  of — 


English  Miles. 

27 

12 

16 

3 


Cana(  . . 

Canalised  Fiver 
Navigation  of  the  Savanna 
Navigation  of  the  Tuyra  . 


58 


This  distance  could  be  easily  traversed  in  24  hours,  even  making 
allowance  for  the  time  that  would  be  occupied  in  the  passage  of 
the  locks. 

The  S.W.  end  of  the  bight  being  in  Lat.  8°  53'  45"  and 
Long.  77°  43'  30",  and  the  mouth  of  the  Lara  being  in  Lat. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAKIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


105 


8°  41'  45"  and  Long.  78°  7',  the  distance  between  them  in  a 
direct  line  is  26  geographical,  or  30|-  English  miles,  and  the 
course  is  S.  62°  W.  (S.W.  by  W.  ^ W.  true),  or  S.W  | W. 
by  compass,  allowing  | of  a point  for  the  variation,  which  was 
8°  50'  E.  in  1854.  The  variation  is  increasing  at  the  rate  of, 
probably,  ^ of  a minute  each  year,  and  may  now  be  assumed  to 
be  8°  53'  E. 

As  the  tide  of  the  Pacific  rises  6^  ft.  at  the  bifurcation  of  the 
Lara  (3J  miles  above  its  mouth),  and  that  point  is  less  than  28 
English  miles  from  Caledonia  Harbour,  the  length  of  canal 
required  would  be  lessened  by  two  miles  by  cutting  into  the  river 
at  its  bifurcation,  and  dredging  it  from  thence  to  the  Savana. 

The  following  are  the  latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  prin- 
cipal points  : 


Escoces  Point  .... 

Golden  Island,  N.E.  Point 
Eronton  of  Sassardi 
San  Fnlgencio  Point 
S.  W.  end  of  the  Bight  of  Caledonia' 
Harbour,  N.  W.  of  St.  Fnlgencio  | 

Point 

Entrance  of  Valley 
Sucubti  Hamlet,  site  of  . 

Asnati  mouth  .... 

Sucubti  mouth  .... 

Lara  do 

Savana  do.  (W.  Point) 

Tuyra  do.  (Boca  Cliica) 

Punta  Brava  (Gulf  of  San  Miguel)  . 
Garachine  Point  (ditto) 


Lat.  N.  Long.  W. 


8° 

51' 

22" 

77° 

38' 

30" 

8 

54 

20 

77 

40 

50 

8 

58 

4 

77 

45 

0 

8 

53 

37 

77 

42 

15 

8 

53 

45 

77 

43 

30 

8 

52 

7 

77 

44 

15 

8 

47 

30 

77 

43 

45 

8 

46 

0 

77 

49 

0 

8 

48 

30 

77 

57 

45 

8 

41 

45 

78 

7 

0 

8 

28 

30 

78 

5 

0 

8 

28 

45 

78 

8 

0 

8 

20 

30 

78 

24 

15 

8 

6 

0 

78 

22 

30 

Punta  Brava  is  78  miles  S.E.  by  E.  ^ E.  of  Panama;  and  San 
Fnlgencio  Point  is  135  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Aspinwall  or  Colon,  in 
Navy  Bay,  the  Atlantic  terminus  of  the  Panama  Railroad.  'The 
line  is  from  60  to  80  miles  E.  of  the  boundary  line  between  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  which  runs  from 
the  Chepo  or  Bayano,  in  the  Gulf  of  Panama,  to  Mandinga  or 
San  Bias  Bay,  and  along  its  shore  to  Cape  San  Bias,  and  corre- 
sponds very  nearly  to  the  meridian  of  79°  W. 


Levels. 

The  Cordillera,  inland  of  that  part  of  the  coast  between  Sas- 
sardi Point  and  Carreto  Harbour,  consists  of  three  distinct  ranges, 
which  run  parallel  to  the  coast,  or  S.E.  and  N.W.  The  first 
commences  close  to  the  shore  of  Port  Escoces,  and  runs  S.E. 
behind  Carreto.  The  second,  named  Agla,  begins  at  San  Ful- 
gencio  Point,  and  becomes  continuous  with  the  first  behind 


lOG 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAHIEN  AND  THE  SIITI’  CANAL. 


Carreto,  forming,  at  the  ])oint  of  junction,  an  elevated  round(‘(l 
suminit,  called  Loma  Deseada.  Jletween  them  is  enclosed  the 
deep  and  wide  valley  in  which  the  Aglatmnati  ;ind  Airlasenirpia 
have  their  courses.  This  valley  bein^  closed  u))  at  its  head  by 
the  junction  of  the  two  ranges,  there  is  no  ])mss  from  it,  ;ind  a 
canal  from  it  to  the  Sucubti,  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  Cordillera, 
would  not  be  practicable,  except  by  tunnelling  through  Mount 
Agla,  the  base  of  which  is  3 miles  broad.  This  valley  o])ens 
into  Caledonia  and  not  into  Caledonia  Harbour^  and  is  3 
miles  S.E.  of  the  line:  it  should,  therefore,  be  avoided.  The 
third  range  is  Sassardi  Mountain,  which  commences  inland  of 
the  N.AV.  extremity' of  the  latter,  and  runs  thence  N.W.,  termi- 
nating abruptly  a little  west  of  Sassardi  Point.  Petween  its 
N.W.  end  and  Navagandi  Mountain  thei’e  is  a comjdete  break  in 
the  Cordillera.  Through  this  there  may,  ])erhaps,  l)e  a low  pass 
from  Sassardi  River  to  the  Moreti,  which  falls  into  the  Chu- 
(pianaqua  7 miles  N.  of  the  Sucubti.  Its  S.E.  extremity  being 
overlapped  by  the  N.AY.  end  of  Agla,  and  both  being  covered 
with  a dense  forest,  the  two  ranges  appear  as  one  to  a careless 
observer ; but  View  3 on  Parsons’  Chart  shows  very  clearly  that 
they  are  distinct  and  unconnected. 

The  height  of  Sassardi,  3|  miles  AV.  by  S.  of  San  Fulgencio, 
is  1985  ft.  It  falls  to  710  ft.,  2^  miles  S.E  of  that  summit.  In 
the  next  f of  a mile  it  rises  to  1275  ft.,  and  then  suddenly  sinks 
dowm  to  the  level  of  the  valley  between  it  and  Agla.  The  Peak 
of  Agla,  on  the  other  side  of  the  valley,  is  926  ft.  high  ; it  bears 
from  the  1275  ft.  summit  of  Sassardi  E.,  and  the  horizontal 
distance  between  them  is  IJ  mile. 

Between  these  two  summits  is  situated  the  valley  to  whicli 
Dr.  Cullen  directed  attention  in  1850,  the  existence  of  which  is 
placed  beyond  doubt  by  Commander  Parsons,  who  has  laid  it 
down  in  his  chart  for  the  distance  of  1;^  mile  up  from  its  en- 
trance. He  was  able  to  see  into  it  from  the  position  in  which 
the  Scorpion  was  anchored  in  the  N.AY.  end  of  the  Channel  of 
Sassardi,  the  obliquity  of  its  direction  preventing  its  being  seen 
from  any  other  position.  Half-way  up  this  valley,  which  is 
3 miles  long,  is  a low  and  narrow  ridge,  forming  the  water-shed 
between  the  river  that  falls  into  Caledonia  Harbour,* — 2|  miles 
N.W.  of  San  Fulgencio  Point,  3J  from  the  Aglaseniqua,  and  4;^ 
from  the  Aglatumati  mouth — and  the  Sucubti,  the  waters  of 
which  flow  into  the  Chuquanaqua,  the  Tuyra,  and  the  Pacific. 
It  is,  therefore,  the  lowest  summit  level  between  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific,  and  is  only  4 miles  from  the  former.  The 
height  of  this  ridge  is  estimated  by  Dr.  Cullen  at  from  180  to 

* It  miglit  be  called  Caledonia  llivcr,  but  that  Mr.  Gisborne  erroneously 
gave  that  name  to  the  Aglatumati. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


107 


200  ft.  On  the  Pacific  side  of  it  is  the  source  of  one  of  the  head 
streams  of  the  Sncnbti,  which  is  joined,  about  mile  lower 
down,  at  the  foot  of  the  926  ft.  summit,  by  the  Foreti.  The 
way  across  Agla  from  the  valley  of  the  Aglatumati  leads  to  the 
junction  of  the  two  streams  ; but  the  necessity  of  crossing  the 
mountain  to  reach  the  Sucubti  may  be  entirely  avoided  by  en- 
tering the  valley  between  Sassardi  and  Agla,  instead  of  that 
between  Agla  and  the  first  range.  Canoes  can  come  up  to  the 
point  of  junction,  which  is  scarcely  6 miles  from  the  Atlantic, 
and  from  thence  there  is  uninterrupted  water  communication  all 
the  way  to  the  Pacific  ; so  that,  by  cutting  for  about  a mile 
through  the  ridge,  a passage  for  canoes  could  be  opened  from 
ocean  to  ocean. 

It  would  be  quite  practicable  to  open  a canal  for  ships  down 
the  Sucubti  and  the  Chuquanaqua  to  the  Tuyra,  which,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  latter  with  it,  is  a great  river,  with  water 
enough  for  the  largest  ships,  and  a considerable  rise  of  tide ; but 
such  a line  would  be  three  times  the  length  of  that  by  way  of 
the  Savana. 

The  elevation  of  the  bed  of  the  Sucubti  falls  from  about 
180  ft.  at  its  source  to  70  or  80  ft.  at  its  mouth.  From  the  bank 
of  the  Chuquanaqua  opposite  the  Sucubti  mouth,  where  the  line 
crosses  it,  the  land  gradually  rises  from  70  or  80  to  120  or  130  ft. 
in  a distance  of  7 miles.  It  then  falls  for  8i  miles  to  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Lara  with  the  Savana,  where  there  are  5 fathoms 
of  water,  and  where  the  Pacific  tide  rises  14  ft. 

The  most  important  elevation  to  be  ascertained  is  that  of  the 
ridge,  which  is  only  4 miles,  or  two  hours’  walk,  from  Caledonia 
Harbour,  and  which  will  admit  of  being  cut  down  to  such  a 
depth  as  to  reduce  considerably  the  amount  of  lockage  that  would 
otherwise  be  required. 

Geology. 

The  material  to  be  excavated  consists  of  alluvial  deposit  of 
very  great  depth — clay,  gravel,  and  rock.  The  shores  and  the 
sides  of  the  smaller  hills,”  says  Parsons,*  are  composed  of  an 
accumulation  of  coral  deposit,  forming,  in  some  places,  a loose 
kind  of  coralline  limestone,  but  in  general  being  disconnected. 
This  substance  is  found  to  some  distance  inland,  on  removing 
the  substratum  of  alluvial  deposit,  rendering  it  probable  that 
the  low  land  from  the  base  of  the  hills  has  been  formed  by  drift 
or  upheaval  in  no  very  remote  age.”  The  soft  material  removed 
by  Captain  Hollins,  of  the  United  States’  corvette  CyanCy  in 
boring  for  a well  near  San  Fulgencio  Point,  was  dolomite  (mag- 

_ * ‘‘  Sailing  Directions  for  Part  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien/’  accompanying 
his  Chart. 


108 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


ncsia  48,  lime  52).  In  tlic  beds  of  tlic  smaller  rivers  there 
romided  pebldes,  and  some  of  the  larger  rivers  are  crossed,  liigli 
11]),  by  ledges  of  slate.  Unfortunately,  the  boring  instrimuaits 
brought  out  in  1854  were  not  even  landed.  'The  same  thing 
occairred  in  the  abortive  French  cxjieditions  of  1800  and  1801, 
the  rc])orts  of  which  were  published  liy  M.  Paul  Roger,  the 
administrator  of  La  Societe  Civile  du  Canal  du  Darien,  by 
which  they  were  sent  out,  in  a book  entitled  “Percement  do 
ristlime  AmericJiin — Journal  dcs  Ex])lorations  dans  Ic  Darien.” 
In  1800  M.  Feragus,  M.  Paqiiet,  and  others  landed  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Aglatumati — the  wrong  ])laee  as  usual — but,  being  con- 
fronted there  by  six  Indians,  by  whom  they  could  not  make 
themselves  understood,  and  who  seemed  to  assume  a hostile 
attitude,  they  returned  at  once  on  Ijoard  the  French  vessel  of 
war,  J.ncifer^  Ca])tain  Marivault,  and  sailed  back  for  France  re 
infeetd.  Jn  1801,  jMjM.  Lourdiol,  Pa([uet,  de  Champvillc,  dc 
Piiydt,  and  the  Abbe  Amodru,  accom])anied  by  a cook,*  went, 
via  Aspinwall  and  Panama,  to  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel  and  the 
river  Savana,  and  ascended  the  latter  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Lara,  from  whence  they  penetrated  some  miles  on  foot ; but, 
liaving  chosen  the  time  of  the  heaviest  rains  for  their  exploration, 
they  found  the  country  so  inundated  that,  before  reaching  the 
Chuquanaqua,  they  were  up  to  their  shoulders  jusq’aux 
epaules”)  in  water  ! They,  therefore,  returned  to  Paris,  and  the 
Society  dissolved. 


Work  to  be  Done. 

There  would  be  no  work  to  be  done  in  the  harbours  or  the 
approaches  to  the  canal,  except  the  erection  of  light-houses,  the 
placing  of  buoys,  the  deepening  of  the  Bight  of  San  Fulgencio 
for  a quarter  of  a mile  from  its  present  depth — 12  to  24  ft. — to  a 
uniform  depth  of  30  ft.,  the  removal  of  a few  small  shoals  in 
Caledonia  Harbour,  of  the  shoals  (reventazones)  between  Golden 
Island  and  Point  Escoces,  and  of  El  Buey  Shoal  in  the  Gulf  of 
San  Miguel.  Trollope  Bock,  15  miles  true  W.  of  Garachine 
Point  should  also  be  removed  by  blasting.  Should  the  depth  at 
Lara  mouth  be  found  to  fall  below  5 fathoms  in  the  dry  season, 
some  dredging  would  be  required  in  the  Savana  for  a mile  or  so 
below  that  point.  With  these  exceptions,  the  whole  amount  of 
work  to  be  done  would  be  to  cut  a canal  12  miles  in  length,  from 
Caledonia  Harbour  to  the  mouth  of  the  Asnati ; to  canalise  the 

* Tliis  was  M.  Hastido,  tlic  highly  esteemed  cocinero  of  the  Western  TTotcl 
at  Panama.  In  1805,  M.  dc  Piiydt  sent  him  np  the  Tuyra,  with  instnictions 
to  cross  from  thence  to  the  Tarcna  ; hut,  on  reaching  Moliiicca,  tlie  people  of 
that  village  refused  to  let  him  pass  beyond  it. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


109 


Sucubti  from  tlience  to  the  Chuquanaqua — a distance  of  11-|- 
miles — and  to  cut  a canal,  15^  miles  long  from  the  Chuquanaqua 
to  the  Savana.  A most  abundant  supply  of  water  for  the 
highest  levels  could  be  obtained  from  the  head  of  the  Sucubti, 
the  Foreti,  Moreti,  Asnati,  Napsati,  Chueti,  Tubuganti,  Ar- 
tuganti.  La  Paz,  and  several  other  rivers,  each  of  which  pours 
forth,  in  tlie  driest  season,  a volume  of  water  far  beyond  what 
would  be  required  for  the  canal.  In  this,  as  in  other  respects, 
the  country  offers  every  facility  for  the  construction  of  a canal 
with  locks. 

The  height  of  the  summit  levels,  the  number  of  cubic  yards  of 
earth  and  rock  to  be  excavated,  the  nature  of  the  latter,  and  the 
number  of  locks  that  will  be  required,  have  yet  to  be  ascertained. 
The  width  of  the  canal  will  also  be  a point  to  be  considered  by 
the  engineer,  who  will  have  to  decide  whether  it  would  be  better 
to  make  it  v>dde  enough  for  the  passage  of  two  ships  abreast,  or 
of  one  only,  with  lie-by  places  at  which  ships  might  pass  each 
other. 

However  scanty  and  incomplete  the  information  that  can  now 
be  offered  on  this  line  may  appear,  it  is  yet  sufficient  to  prove 
that,  besides  the  pre-eminent  recommendation  of  being  provided 
with  excellent  harbours  at  each  terminus,  it  has  the  additional 
advantages  of  shortness,  low  elevation,  and  healthiness.  Dr. 
Cullen,  therefore,  considers  himself  justified  in  asserting  it  to 
be  the  most  eligible  route  for  interoceanic  communication,  and 
is  confident  that,  when  as  admirable  a survey  shall  have  been 
made  of  it  as  those  of  the  Panama,  Nicaragua,  and  Atrato  routes, 
by  Garella,  Childs,  and  Michler,  it  will  be  found  to  require  a 
lesser  amount  of  excavation  and  fewer  locks  than  any  of  the 
other  proposed  routes. 

In  fact,  a glance  at  the  map  will  convince  the  most  sceptical 
that  nature  has  most  unmistakably  marked  out  this  tract  for  the 
junction  of  the  two  oceans,  and  the  breaking  of  the  continuity 
of  North  and  South  America.  Indeed,  the  line  of  division  is  so 
narrov^^  and  so  low  that  it  is  likely  the  two  seas  did  once  meet 
here. 

Considering  the  rapid  strides  that  engineering  science  has 
made  quite  recently,  and  is  still  making,  it  would  be  waste  of 
time  to  adduce  any  arguments  to  prove  that  there  is  nothing 

stupendous,”  as  the  phrase  used  to  be,  in  this  undertaking.  It 
is  enough  to  allude  to  the  Languedoc,  Erie,  Ganges,  East 
Jumna,  West  Jumna,  and  Baree  Doab  Canals,  and  to  the  great 
canalisation  and  irrigation  system  in  China.  In  comparison  with 
any  one  of  those  great  works,  long  ago  completed,  the  proposed 
canal  in  Darien  seems  quite  a trifling  undertaking.  It  will  be, 
after  all,  little  more  than  1 J times  the  length,  and  1-j  times  the 


110 


ISTHMUS  OF  UAHIEN  AND  THE  STTIF  CANAL. 


(leptli,  of  tlic  Caledonian  Canal,  wliicli  was  coin])letGd  by  Mr. 
Telford  in  1822,  the  total  cost  having  been  1)05,258^.* 


Cost. 

There  are,  as  yet,  no  data  npon  which  an  estimate  of  the  cost 
of  the  work  could  be  framed.  A rough,  a])proximate  calculation 
has,  however,  been  made  under  the  following  circumstances. 
The  author  having,  in  1857,  presented  all  the  plans  and  docu- 
ments bearing  on  the  matter  to  the  Em])eror  of  the  French, 
his  Majesty,  after  examining  them,  forwarded  them  to  Count 
Walewski,  who  appointed  a commission  of  engineers  of  the 
Cor])S  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees  to  study  the  (piestion.  The 
result  at  which  they  arrived,  after  an  investigation  which  occu- 
pied three  weeks,  was  that  the  canal  was  practicable  without  a 
tunnel,  and  could  be  completed  for  15(),()()(),00()  francs,  or 
G,000,()0()/.  sterling.  The  estimate  drawn  uj)  in  1804,  by  M. 
Mougel  Bey,  the  Chief  of  the  Cor])S,  is  as  follows  : 


Excavation  of  the  Canal 

Francs. 

76,027,437 

Centimes. 

25 

Dredging  of  the  Savana  .... 

3,080,000 

Aqueducts 

490,000 

35 

Turning  the  course  of  Rivers 

1,241,660 

35 

Machinery,  Locks,  &c 

33,176,080 

55 

Material,  Buildings,  Tools,  clearing  Forest,  and  ) 
Expenses  of  Administration  . . . j 

19,400,000 

35 

Contingencies 

39,584,822 

75 

173,000,000 
or  £0,920,000. 


A considerable  reduction  might  be  made  by  canalising 
12  miles  of  the  Sucubti,  as  already  suggested,  but  no  data  can 
be  given  for  the  expense  of  such  a work.  The  estimate  made 

The  Caledonian  Canal,  23  miles  8 chains  long,  122  feet  wide  at  top,  50  feet 
at  bottom,  has  a depth  of  20  feet  in  general,  but,  in  some  parts,  not  more  than 
17.  There  arc  28  locks,  each  of  which,  except  the  regulating  or  guard  locks,  has 
a lift  of  7 or  8 feet.  It  consists  of  several  short  canals,  connecting  together 
some  lochs,  and  thereby  establishing  a communication  between  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  German  Sea. 

The  main  line  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal  is  35  miles  long,  56  feet  wide 
at  top,  27  at  bottom,  and  10  feet  deep.  In  10|  miles  from  Grangemouth  it 
rises  156  feet  by  20  locks.  The  summit  level  continues  16  miles,  and  from  it 
to  the  Clyde  there  is  a descent  of  156  feet  by  19  locks.  It  had  to  be  carried 
through  moss,  quicksand,  gravel,  and  rocks,  over  precipices,  and  across 
valleys,  in  the  course  of  which,  besides  smaller  ones,  18  drawbridges,  and  15 
aqueducts,  with  several  tunnels,  had  to  be  constructed.  It  was  commenced 
in  1768  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  and  completed  in  1790,  at  a cost  of  200,000/. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


Ill 


by  M.  Thome  de  Gamond*  for  canalising  the  whole  course  of 
the  San  Juan  de  Nicaragua,  119  miles,  amounted  to  24,100,000 
francs,  or  964,000^. ; but  the  fall  of  the  San  Juan  is  little  over 
one  foot  per  mile,  whilst  that  of  the  Sucubti  is,  perhaps,  5 or  6 ft. 
per  mile.  A most  abundant  supply  of  material  for  the  embank- 
ments could  be  obtained  close  at  hand,  from  the  excavations  for 
the  canal  at  either  end  of  the  canalised  portion  of  the  river. 

The  whole  work  might,  perhaps,  be  done  by  15,000  men  in 
four  years.  Allowing  SOL  a year  for  the  wages  and  food  of 
each,  the  cost  of  the  labour  would  be  4,800,000/. 

Seasons. 

The  seasons  in  Darien  are  the  dry  and  the  rainy.  The  dry 
season,  from  December  to  May,  is  during  the  time  of  the  strong 
trade-winds,  which  cause  the  vapours  to  pass  over  the  moun- 
tains to  the  Pacific.  These  are  arrested  when  the  winds  become 
lighter,  and  then  the  rainy  season  commences,  which  lasts  till 
December,  with  fine  weather  at  intervals.  The  breezes  in  the 
dry  season  are  exceedingly  strong,  causing  a heavy  sea  to  prevail 
along  this  coast.  Care  must  be  taken,  in  standing  in  for  the 
land,  to  allow  sufficient  room  for  wearing,  in  the  event  of  missing 
stays,  a thing  of  frequent  occurrence  with  us. 

“ The  average  temperature  is  about  82°  F ahr.  The  atmo- 
sphere is  exceedingly  moist  and  hazy,  by  exhalation  from  the 
sea,  and  the  land  sometimes  cannot  be  seen  more  than  5 miles.”'*' 

Winds. 

Of  the  winds.  Parsons  says : The  prevailing  wind  here  is 
from  N.N.W.  to  N.N.E.  This  is  the  trade-wind,  whicli,  turned 
from  its  direction  by  the  high  land  of  the  continent,  and  finding 
a void  in  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  rushes  in  to  fill  it.  From  January 
to  April  we  had  it  constantly  blowing  in  this  direction,  with  an 
approach  to  calm  at  night.  In  the  rainy  season,  the  wind  ceases 
at  night,  and  a land  wind  blows  from  the  mountains,  with  occa- 
sional squalls  with  rain  from  the  S.W. ; but  I think  it  would 
seldom  blow  with  any  force  from  the  S.E.  or  E. 

Hurricanes  are  unheard  of  in  this  quarter,  it  being  sheltered 
by  the  land  to  the  eastward;  and  these  gales  never  pass  over 
large  continents,  confining  themselves  principally  to  the  open 
sea,  or  only  passing  over  small  islands. 

* Gamoud,  Thome  de.  Carte  d’Etade  pour  le  trace  et  le  profil  du  Canal 
de  Nicaragua.  Paris,  1858. 

f Parsons’  “ Sailing  Directions.” 


112 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAIIIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


Eartli quakes  must  be  rare,  as  tlie  Indians  do  not  recollect 
tlie  ground  shaking  at  any  time.  This  fact  would  be  favourable 
to  the  ])ermanency  of  a ship  canal  when  once  established.”* 


Climate. 

PTom  the  total  absence  of  swam]),  marsh,  or  fen  along  the  line, 
and  the  great  number  of  rivers  and  rivulets  ((juebradas)  with 
rapid  currents,  which  drain  the  adjacent  country,  and  ])revent 
the  lodgment  of  stagnant  water  in  its  vicinity,  the  climate  may 
be  considered  healthy,  and  the  occurrence  of  malai’ious  fevers 
amongst  European  labourers,  if  well  cared  for  and  of  temperate 
habits,  need  scarcely  be  a])])rehended. 

The  re])orts  of  Dr.  McDermott,  of  II.M.S.  Espiegle,  Dr. 
Brownlow,  of  the  U.S.  corvette  Cyane,  Dr.  Kondat,  of  the 
Pb’encli  war  steamer  Chimere  (avis),  and  Dr.  Boss,  of  II.M.S. 
Virago,  show  that,  amongst  900  men  who  com])Osed  the  crews  of 
the  vessels  which  lay  at  anchor  in  Caledonia  Ilarbour,  and  250 
men  of  the  Virago,  which  was  stationed  in  the  river  Savana,  in 
1854,  not  a single  case  of  sickness  occurred  during  the  three 
months  of  their  stay ; whilst  the  convalescence  of  those  who 
were  sick  on  the  arrival  of  the  vessels  there  was  unusually 
rapid. 

Dr.  McDermott  says,  in  a letter  in  the  Medical  Times  of 
January  17,  1857  : “It  results  from  the  experience  of  Dr.  Boss, 
Dr.  Brownlow,  and  myself,  that  the  po2:)idar  idea  of  the  un- 
healthiness  of  Darien  is  quite  erroneous.  Not  a single  case  of 
sickness  occurred  amongst  any  of  the  parties  sent  on  shore  from 
the  Espiegle,  Cyane,  and  Chimere,  whilst  the  patients  who  were 
on  the  sick  lists  of  those  vessels,  on  their  arrival  in  Darien, 
rapidly  convalesced.  Indeed,  it  was  remarked  by  all  the  medical 
officers  that  the  crews  of  the  vessels  were  in  better  condition 
on  leaving  Darien  than  when  we  arrived  there.  From  all  the 

The  exemption  of  Darien  from  volcanie  disturbance  is  remarkable.  It 
appears  to  be  one  of  those  limited  districts  sometimes  found  in  volcanic  regions, 
on  each  side  of  which  earthquakes  and  eruptions  occur  without  affecting  the 
central  district.  Ileasoning  upon  the  causes  why  certain  intermediate  points 
at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  in  the  direction  traversed  by  eartliquak-es,  are 
unatfected  by  their  inliuence,  Humboldt,  as  if  to  bear  out  the  assertion  of  the 
Panamenians  that  their  province  is  not  troubled  by  them,  observes:  “This 
])henomcnon  is  frequently  remarked  at  Peru  and  Mexico  in  earthquakes  which 
liave  followed  during  ages  a determinate  direction.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Andes  say,  witli  simplicity,  speaking  of  an  intermediate  ground,  which  is  not 
affected  by  the  general  motion,  that  it  forms  a bridge  {hace  puente),  as  if  they 
meant  to  indicate  by  this  expression  that  the  undulations  are  propagated  at 
an  immense  depth  under  an  inert  rock.’"  It  docs  not  appear  that  there  have 
been  eruptions  or  earthquakes  during  the  last  few  centuries  in  any  part  of  the 
Istlimus  of  Darien.” 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAETEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


113 


inquiries  that  I made  among  the  natives,  I could  not  ascertain 
that  any  particular  form  of  fever  or  other  disease  prevailed 
among  them,  and,  from  their  appearance,  I would  say  they  are 
a very  healthy  race.” 

Commander  Parsons,  also,  says  : During  our  stay,  from 
January  to  April,  we  found  the  climate  to  be  healthy,  having 
had  no  cases  of  fever,  although  the  men  were  greatly  exposed.” 
Lastly,  Mr.  Gisborne,  in  his  Report  to  Lord  Wharncliffe,  says  : 

There  have  been  altogether  in  this  surveying  expedition  900 
persons  subject  to  climatic  influences,  some  along  the  coast,  and 
some  in  the  interior,  and  I believe  I am  correct  in  stating  that 
not  a single  case  of  illness  occurred  during  the  whole  period  of 
our  stay.” 

The  opinion  which  the  author  had  previously  expressed  of 
the  healthiness  of  the  climate,  founded  upon  a consideration  of 
the  physical  aspect  of  the  tract  of  country,  has  thus  been  cor- 
roborated, and  receives  further  conflrmation  from  a document 
which  he  found  in  the  course  of  his  researches  in  the  i^rchives 
of  Bogota.  This  was  the  diary  of  Sergeant  Gabriel  Morales,  who, 
with  Sergeants  Miguel  Antonio  Delgado  and  Miguel  Quintana, 
commanded  a detachment  of  150  soldiers  of  La  Princesa  Re- 
giment, who  had  arrived  from  Spain  only  a short  time  before, 
and  were  sent  to  search  for  and  capture  Indians  by  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Don  Andres  de  Arisa,  the  Governor  of  Darien.  They 
started  from  the  fort  of  Principe,  on  the  Savana,  proceeded  to 
the  Moreti,  went  across  the  hills  to  the  Sucubti,  and  returned 
after  an  absence  of  fifteen  days  in  the  height  of  the  rainy  season, 
without  having  seen  any  sign  or  trace  of  an  Indian;  but  in 
'perfect  health.  The  diary  concludes  thus:  “July  the  25  th,  at 
noon,  we  entered  Principe,  and  presented  ourselves  to  the  go- 
vernor, informing  him  that  the  whole  of  the  troops  had  returned 
in  perfect  health,  notwithstanding  the  terribly  unfavom’able 
weather  they  had  unceasingly  encountered,  there  not  having 
been  one  fine  day  ; and  that  all  had  used  their  best  endeavours 
to  fall  in  with  the  enemy,  and  returned  disconsolate  at  not 
having  succeeded  therein.  Puerto  Principe,  July  25,  1786 — 
Gabriel  Morales.” 

In  conclusion,  the  author  begs  to  refer  to  the  fact  that, 
although  the  entire  Indian  population  of  Darien  does  not 
amount  to  3000  souls,  there  were  living,  and  personally  known 
to  him,  a few  years  ago,  six  chiefs,  each  of  whom  was  100 
years  of  age  or  more,  viz.,  Caldgwa,  John  Bull,  Shephard, 
Campbell,  and  two  others  whose  names  he  did  not  learn  ; whilst 
the  air  of  Darien  would  seem  to  be  conducive  to  longevity  even 
in  the  case  of  Europeans,  for  the  late  Captain  J ohn  Shephard, 
a Scotchman,  who  spent  most  of  his  life  on  the  Darien  coast 
' I 


114 


ISTIIMUfi  OF  BATITEN  AND  TTTE  RTTIF  CANAL. 


trading  witli  tlic  Indians,  was  a centenarian  wlien  lie  died,  in 
1853,  at  San  Juan  de  Nicaragua.  ( 

Mean  Level  of  the  Oceans. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  a great  difference  of  level 
existed  between  the  two  oceans,  as  well  as  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Kcd  Sea;  but,  in  both  cases,  accurate  investiga- 
tions have  proved  the  belief  to  have  been  unfounded.  Jn  1855, 
a series  of  observations  made  by  Colonel  Totten,  the  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Panama  Pailroad,  on  the  height  of  the  tides  ;ind 
the  levels  of  the  two  oceans — in  Navy  Pay,  on  the  Atlantic,  and 
in  Playa  Prieta,  a bight  in  the  Pay  of  Panama,  on  the  Pacific — 
established  the  fact  that  the  difference  of  mean  level,  if  any,  is 
very  trifling.  The  following  were  the  results  : 


Pacific. 

Atlantic. 

May  and 
June. 

November 

and 

December. 

August 

and 

September. 

Greatest  rise  of  tide 

Least 

Average 

Mean  tide  of  Paeific  above  mean  tide  ] 

of  Atlantic 1 

High  spring  tide  of  Pacific  above  high  ] 

spring  tide  of  Atlantic J 

Low  spring  tide  of  Pacific  belotv  low  ] 

spring  tide  of  Atlantic 1 

Mean  high  tide  of  Pacific  above  mean  | 

high  tide  of  Atlantic I 

Mean  low  tide  of  Pacific  below  mean  ] 

tide  of  Atlantic I 

Average  rise  of  spring  tides 

[ 

[ 

i 

[ 

Feet. 

17-72 

7-94 

12-08 

0-759 

9-40 

G-55 

6-25 

4-73 

14-08 

9-CO 

Feet. 

21-30 

9-70 

14-10 

0-140 

10-12 

9-40 

6-73 

5-26 

17-30 

:i2-40 

Feet. 

1-60 

0- 63 

1- 16 

Average  rise  of  neap  tides 

Colonel  Totten  thus  concludes  his  Keport  : Although  my 
observations  make  the  mean  level  of  the  Pacific  from  0T40  to 
0*759  feet  higher  than  the  mean  level  of  the  Atlantic,  this  is 
probably  owing  to  local  circumstances  alone.  We  may,  there- 
fore, decide  that  there  is  no  difference  in  the  mean  level  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.”  Colonel  Totten,  it  must  be 
observed,  was  able  to  test  the  accuracy  of  his  levelling  across 
the  Isthmus  upon  the  finished  bed  of  the  railroad,  an  advantage 
not  ])ossessed  by  previous  observers.  The  residt  of  the  difference 
of  the  rise  of  tide  is,  that  there  is  a perpetual  oscillation — 


ISTHMUS  OP  DAEIEH  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


115 


sometimes  the  one  and  sometimes  the  other  sea  beino;  the  Iho-her 
— except  at  mid-tide,  when  both  are  on  a level.  At  high  water 
the  Pacific  is  from  6*25  to  10*12  ft.  higher,  and,  at  low  water, 
from  4*73  to  9*40  ft.  lower  than  the  Atlantic.  The  time  of  high 
water  in  Navy  Bay  and  Panama  Bay  is  nearly  the  same,  viz.,  at 
3 h.  20  m.  at  full  and  change.  In  Caledonia  Harbour  it  is  high 
water,  at  full  and  change,  at  11  h.  40  m.  The  rise  of  tide  there 
is  1 ft.  6 in.  springs  ; 0 ft.  6 in.  neaps.  The  rise  and  fall  of  tide 
in  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel  is  from  18  to  24  ft. 

As  the  canal  must  have  a few  locks,  the  difference  in  the  rise 
of  tide  in  the  two  oceans  would  have  no  bearing  whatever  on  the 
question  of  its  practicability. 

Population. 

The  only  inhabited  place  on  the  line  was  the  village  of 
Sucubti,  population  about  70,  which  was  set  fire  to  by  the  in- 
habitants and  abandoned  upon  the  approach  of  Lieutenant 
Strain,  on  the  25th  of  January,  1854.  When  Mr.  Gisborne 
arrived  there  on  the  8th  of  February,  he  found  nothing  but 
the  fragments  of  some  canoes,  which  had  been  smashed  up 
to  render  them  useless.  The  people  probably  removed  to  Asnati ; 
and  it  is  likely  the  place  will  never  be  re-occupied,  as  it  was 
formerly  the  custom  of  the  Indians  to  quit  for  ever  any  place 
that  had  been  visited  by  Spaniards.  The  only  places  within 
10  miles  of  the  line  are — Agla,  on  the  Aglatumati,  3 miles  from 
its  mouth  in  Caledonia  Bay,  with  about  60  inhabitants;  and 
Sassardi,  Asnati,  and  Moreti,  with  50  or  60  inhabitants  each. 
Agla  and  Sassardi  were  abandoned  in  1854.  It  is  very  pro- 
bable that  the  Indians  would  give  up  their  claim  to  that  part  of 
the  country  in  exchange  for  a part  of  the  coast  from  Cape  San 
Bias  to  Portobello,  which  has  now,  in  an  extent  of  45  miles, 
only  the  hamlets  of  Culebra,  Palenque,  and  Nombre  de  Dios, 
with  an  aggregate  population  of  about  150  negroes,  who  are 
descendants  of  ^i^riarrones  or  Spanish  maroons. 

Memokanda  foe  Future  Explorers  and  Surveyors. 

No  “ volunteer,^’so^- Jwawi  guide,  engineer,  or  agent  of  any 
company  should  be  allowed,  on  any  pretext  whatsoever,  to 
accompany  the  explorers  and  surveyors  to  be  sent  out  by  the 
company  that  may  undertake  the  cutting  of  the  Darien  Canal. 
The  intrusion  of  volunteers  ” from  the  Atrato  Ship  Canal 
Company,  and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  caused  the 
failure  of  the  expedition  of  1854. 

Before  any  attempt  be  made  to  land  in  Darien  the  consent  of 
the  Indians  should  be  obtained.  It  was  the  neglect  of  this  pre- 

i2 


116 


TSTTTMUS  OF  DAKTEN  AND  TTTE  SIIIF  CANAL. 


caution  tliat  led  to  tlic  unfortunate  result  of  Commander  Pro- 
vost’s ill-advised  and  misguided  attempt  to  cross  the  Isthmus. 

If  treated  in  a friendly,  fraid\,  and  coueillatory  Sf)irit,  and 
assured  that  their  sovereignty  over  the  Atlantic  j)ortlon  of  the 
line  is  not  dls])uted,  they  will  offer  no  o])])Osition.  Some  of  the 
Sassardi  ])eopie  should  be  sent  for  Kobinson,  w’ho  was  secretary 
to  Calbgwa,  the  late  chief  of  the  San  IJlas  Indians,  and  who  re- 
sides at  Carti,  or  Cedar  Kiver,  in  San  I>las  Pay.  This  man 
lived  for  twelve  years  in  AVashington ; viz.,  from  1841  to  1858, 
and  was  educated  there  at  the  expense  of  the  late  Daniel  Web- 
ster. lie  is  very  intelligent  and  s])eaks  English  fluently.  He 
should  be  requested  to  invite  the  old  men  or  chiefs  of  Sucubti, 
Asnati,  Moreti,  Sassardi,  and  Carreto  villages  to  a conference,  at 
which  a treaty  of  friendship  should  be  conciuded  with  them,  and 
their  consent  obtained  to  the  making  of  a survey,  and  the 
cutting  of  the  canal.  If  ])ro})crly  treated,  they  might  provide 
guides  through  the  forest,  and  furnish  canoes  for  navigating  the 
Sucubti,  and  hunters  for  killing  game.  A large  number  of 
Indians  should  be  induced  to  accompany  the  explorers,  as  guides 
and  hunters ; since  they  would  answer  as  hostages  to  secure  the 
peaceable  behaviour  of  the  others. 

The  party  from  Caledonia  Harbour  should  find,  on  their 
arrival  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lara,  another  party  stationed  there 
and  w^ell  supplied  with  provisions,  surveying  and  boring  instru- 
ments, &c.  The  latter  should  be  sent  out,  via  Aspinwall  and 
Panama  to  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel  and  the  Savana,  a month 
before  the  former.  The  exploring  party  should  be  preceded  by 
a sailor,  having  a ship’s  compass  suspended  in  front  of  his 
breast  by  straps.  Another  sailor,  with  a ship’s  compass  secured 
in  the  same  way,  should  bring  up  the  rear.  Every  member  of 
the  party  should  have  a pocket-compass,  and  know  or  be  taught 
how  to  use  it. 

Every  one  of  the  party,  except  the  sailors  with  the  compasses, 
who  should  have  no  article  of  iron  about  them,  should  have 
a machete  or  bush-cutlass,  with  wdiich  he  should  notch  the 
barks  of  the  trees  in  going  along,  so  as  to  make  a picadura  or 
blazing.  By  taking  this  precaution  stragglers  will  escape  the 
danger  of  being  lost  in  the  bush ; and,  in  case  of  difficulty,  the 
party  can  at  any  time  find  their  way  back.  Had  Lieutenant 
Strain’s  party  adopted  this  plan,  they  would  have  avoided  the 
dreadful  sufferings  they  endured  through  neglect  of  it. 

The  distance  should  be  measured  by  a chain,  and  every  hour’s 
course  and  distance  logged.  Observations  for  latitude  and 
longitude  should  be  taken  at  every  important  point,  to  serve 
as  astronomical  bases.  Frequent  barometrical  observations  should 
also  be  taken  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  heights  and  find- 
ing the  lowest  levels. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


117 


Ranchos  or  sheds,  made  of  poles  stuck  in  the  ground  and 
tliatclied  with  palm  leaves,  should  be  built  at  convenient  distances. 
One  of  them  can  be  made  in  an  hour,  as  guagaras  or  fan-leaved 
palms  are  everywhere  abundant.  The  bush  and  timber  felled 
in  making  the  paths  should  be  burned  as  soon  as  possible. 

Negroes  accustomed  to  work  with  the  machete  (macheteros) 
can  be  engaged  at  Carthagena,  Portobello,  or  As^iinwall.  They 
are  the  best  men  for  clearing  bush  and  cutting  paths ; but  per- 
mission for  them  to  land  should  be  obtained  from  the  Indians,  as 
they  have  a great  aversion  to  negroes,  at  least,  Spanish  negroes ; 
possibly  they  might  not  object  to  Jamaica  men. 

The  only  right  place  to  start  from  is  the  western  extremity  of 
the  bight  N.Yf . of  San  F ulgencio  Point,  in  Lat.  8°  53'  45", 
Long.  77°  43'  30".  By  proceeding  from  thence,  a little  more 
than  ^ a mile  to  the  W.,  and  then  2 English  miles,  S.  true,  the 
entrance  of  the  valley  will  be  reached.  The  chief  engineer,  in 
1854,  landed  in  Caledonia  Bay,  3 miles  S.E.  of  the  above  point, 
and  went  up  the  Aglatumati,  although  Dr.  Cullen  had  advised 
him  to  land  at  Caledonia  Harbour,  and  told  him  that  there  was 
no  pass  from  the  Aglatumati. 

A light  elongating  ladder  for  ascending  the  trees  on  the  summit 
of  the  Cordillera,  and  a stationary  balloon  would  be  useful  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  an  uninterrupted  view  over  the  country. 
A light  boat  should  be  carried  across  to  the  Sucubti,  as  it  is 
probable  that  the  hamlet  has  not  been  re-occupied,  in  which  case 
a canoe  could  not  be  got  there.  Rafts  should  be  constructed  of 
the  wood  of  the  balsas,  or  other  light  timber,  to  convey  the 
party  down  the  Sucubti.  The  path  from  the  Chuquanaqua  to 
the  Savana  should  commence  either  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
Sucubti,  or  anywhere  within  a distance  of  4 or  5 miles  below 
that  point.  The  surveyors  can  alone  determine  the  line  of 
lowest  elevation.  The  exploration  being  ended,  and  the  line 
to  be  surveyed  marked  out,  the  engineers  can  commence  the 
survey.  Until  that  time,  the  conduct  of  the  affair  should  be 
entrusted  to  some  persons  experienced  in  exploring  forests  in  the 
tropics.  The  best  time  for  exploring  the  Isthmus  is  from  the 
beginning  of  December  to  the  beginning  of  April ; that  being 
the  dry  season  the  rivers  are  then  low,  and  the  heat  is  tempered 
by  a N.E.  sea  breeze.  The  party  should  arrive  in  Darien  on  or 
before  the  1st  of  December. 

Advantages  of  a Ship-canal. 

Not  only  would  all  the  commerce  of  the  western  shores  of 
North  and  South  America  pass  through  the  canal,  but,  after  its 
opening,  no  voyages  would  be  made  round  the  Cape  of  Good 


118 


TSTITMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SIITF  CANAL. 


Hope  to  Cliina  and  Australia,  as  tlicy  would  be  much  more 
accessible  by  the  Darien  Canal  than  by  the  ])resent  cirenitons 
route,  and  the  voyage  could  be  made  within  one  tro])ic,  whilst,  at 
present,  a vessel  must  ])ass  four  times  through  each  tropic  in  a 
single  voyage  out  and  home. 

As  regards  ])assages  to  and  from  the  west  coast  of  North  and 
South  America,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  to  sail,  for  instance, 
from  Aspinwall,  the  Atlantic  terminus  of  the  Panama  Pail  road, 
to  Panama,  a distance  of  4(i  miles  by  land,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
sail  from  9°  N.  to  55°  S.  latitude,  in  order  to  weather  the  stormy 
Cape  Horn,  and  to  return  u|)  the  west  coast  to  9°  N.  on  the 
Pacific  side.  The  ship  would  thus  have  to  sail  over  04°  of 
latitude  on  each  ocean,  or  7080  nautical,  equal  to  8890  English 
miles,  on  a single  passage,  or  17,792  miles  on  a voyage  to  and 
from.  Besides  this  enormous  distance  in  latitude  to  be  traversed, 
it  must  also  be  taken  into  account  that,  on  such  a passage,  a 
vessel  would  have  to  run  off  to  the  eastward  as  far  as  3()°  W. 
longitude,  in  order  to  avoid  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  to  make  back 
the  same  distance  to  the  westward.  She  would  also  be  obliged 
to  beat  to  windward  both  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  against 
the  S.E.  trade-wind  in  the  former,  when  l)ound  from  Aspin- 
wall to  Panama ; in  the  latter,  when  bound  from  Panama  to 
Aspinwall.  Moreover,  the  terrific  storms  from  the  W.,  often 
experienced  off  Cape  Horn,  might  delay  her  entrance  into  the 
Pacifie  for  weeks.  Vessels  bound  either  to  or  from  China  and 
Australia  would,  by  the  Darien  route,  have  such  fair,  steady, 
regular  winds,  that  their  arrival  might  be  calculated  upon  with 
precision  and  accuracy.  In  a passage  to  China  by  the  canal,  a 
vessel,  having  cleared  its  Pacific  terminus,  would  at  once  enter 
into  the  track  of  the  N.E.  trade-wind,  which  blows  between  the 
parallels  of  10°  and  25°  N.,  and,  her  course  being  W.,  she  would 
be  carried  with  a fair  and  steady  breeze  directly  to  her  destina- 
tion. On  the  return  voyage  from  China  to  the  entrance  of  the 
canal,  a ship  would  at  once  run  up  to  between  30°  and  40°  N., 
so  as  to  be  clear  of  the  region  of  the  N.E.  trade-wind,  and 
avail  herself  of  the  strong  W.  winds  that  prevail  between  those 
parallels  to  steer  an  E.  course  to  the  coast  of  Mexico.  There  she 
would  meet  the  N.  land-wind,  which  would  carry  her  with  a 
flowing  sheet  down  to  the  Isthmus. 

On  a passage  out  to  Australia  a ship  would,  after  leaving  the 
canal,  enter  a narrow  track  extending  from  10°  to  4°  N.,  in 
which  the  winds  are  variable.  Having  crossed  this,  she  would 
enter  the  region  of  the  S.E.  trade-wind,  which  would  be  a fair 
wind,  her  course  being  W.S.W.  Having  passed  the  southern 
limit  of  this  wind,  in  23°  S.  latitude,  she  would  enter  the  region 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


119 


of  the  N.W.  wind,  which  would  also  be  favourable  to  her  course. 
On  her  return  from  Australia  she  might  at  once  run  up  into 
the  S.E.  trade,  in  Lat.  23°  S.,  from  whence,  her  course  being 
about  E.N.E.,  she  would  have  a perfectly  fair  wind  all  the  way. 
Or  she  might  run  down  part  of  her  easting  within  the  limits  of 
the  N.W.  wind,  and  then  run  up  into  the  S.E.  trade,  by  doing 
which  she  would  have  the  wind  a couple  of  })oints  more  free. 

The  vast  saving  of  time  by  the  adoption  of  this  passage,  which 
will  enable  ships  to  make  two  or  three  voyages  in  the  same 
period  that  they  now  take  to  make  one,  the  saving  of  expense 
in  their  navigation,  of  wear  and  tear,  of  interest  on  the  value  of 
ship  and  cargo,  of  insurance  of  ship,  cargo  and  freight,  and  the 
great  diminution  of  shipwreck  and  loss  of  life  by  sea,  will  effect 
a complete,  but  beneficial,  revolution  in  commerce. 

Not  only  will  a great  saving  of  time  be  effected  by  the  direct 
diminution  of  distance  to  be  traversed  between  Europe  and  the 
E.  coast  of  America,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  W.  coast  of 
America,  China,  Japan,  Australia,  &c.,  on  the  other,  and  vice 
versdj  but  also  by  the  avoidance  of  the  loss  of  time  occasioned 
by  calms  in  the  low  latitudes,  hard  gales  off  the  capes,  and  the 
very  long  tacks  to  the  eastward  and  westward  which  vessels  are 
now  obliged  to  make,  in  beating  against  the  S.E.  trade  in  the 
South  Atlantic,  or  the  N.E.  or  S.  W.  monsoon  in  the  China  seas. 
By  the  proposed  canal  all  those  causes  of  delay  will  be  obviated, 
and  fair,  steady  winds,  smooth  seas,  and  pleasant  weather 
throughout  the  voyage — both  out  and  home — may  be  fairly  cal- 
culated upon. 

Nor  are  the  benefits  resulting  from  increased  intercourse  and 
proximity  the  only  advantages  which  may  be  hoped  for.  The 
safety  of  life  and  property  will  be  greatly  increased,  the  hard- 
ships of  thousands  of  mariners  will  be  lessened  to  an  incalculable 
extent,  and  the  facilities  for  benefiting  our  fellow-creatures  will 
be  greatly  multiplied. 

The  gold  discoveries  in  California  and  Australia  have  imparted 
an  impulse  to  ocean  navigation,  to  the  results  of  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  assign  any  limits  ; nor,  until  the  Darien  Canal  is 
completed,  can  we  estimate  the  effect  it  will  have  in  diverting 
the  commerce  between  the  E.  and  W.  hemispheres  from  the  old 
routes.  That  by  Cape  Horn  will  be  totally  abandoned,  and  that 
by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  will  be  preferred  only  by  vessels 
bound  to  the  hither  side  of  the  Straits  of  Malacca.  To  all 
countries  lying  farther  east — to  China,  Japan,  Australia,  <fec. — 
the  most  comfortable,  safe,  speedy,  and  least  expensive  route  will 
be  through  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  Ship  Canal. 


120 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAHIEN  ANT)  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


Saving  of  Time  and  Money. 

Tlic  saving  tliat  would  be  effected  by  tlie  adoption  of  tliis 
passage  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  comparison  of  tlie 
expenditure  of  time  and  money  on  tlie  jiassagc  of  a sliij),  with  a 
crew  of  30  men,  from  New  York  to  California,  via  Cape  Horn, 
with  what  it  would  be  by  way  of  the  canal : 


Fid  Cape  Horn. 


Time,  150  days. 

Salaries,  and  finding  of  ollicers  and 
erew,  for  five  months,  5880  dollars. 

Insuranee  on  90,000  dollars  (value  of 
ship)  for  5 montlis,  3G00  dollars. 

Wear,  tear,  and  depreeiation,  at  10 
per  eent.  per  annum,  for  5 mouths, 
3750  dollars. 

Total  . 13,230  dollars. 


Fid  Canal. 


Time,  45  days. 

Salaries,  and  findiim  of  officers  and 
crew,  for  month,  1704  dollars. 
Insurance  forl^  month,  1080  dollars. 

Wear,  tear,  &c.,  for  1^  month,  1125 
dollars. 

Total  . 3900  dollars. 


Difference  in  favour  of  the  canal,  105  days  and  92(51  dollars. 
From  England  to  California  the  saving  would  be  somewhat 
greater. 

Supposing  the  value  of  the  cargo  to  be  100,000  dollars,  the 
saving  on  it  would  be  as  follows  : 


Fid  Cape  Horn. 

Interest  at  7 per  cent,  per  annum,  for 
5 months,  2910  dollars. 

Insurance  at  4 per  cent.,  4000  dollars. 
Total  . 0910  dollars. 


Fid  Canal. 


Interest  at  7 ])er  cent,  per  annum,  for 
1|^  month,  874  dollars. 

Insurance  at  2 per  cent.,  2000  dollars. 
Total  . 2874  dollars. 


Difference  in  favour  of  canal  4042  dollars. 

The  total  gains  of  ship  and  cargo  would  therefore  be  13,303 
dollars,  or  about  6 per  cent,  on  the  value  of  both. 

With  respect  to  the  cargo,  it  would  avoid  the  damage  of  goods 
going  round  Cape  Horn — at  present  a very  heavy  percentage 
on  their  value.  Rear-Admiral  Davis  calculates,  from  the  in- 
complete returns  for  1857,  that  the  saving  to  the  trade  of  the 
United  States,  England,  and  France  by  the  canal  route,  if  then 
open,  would  have  amounted,  for  that  year,  to  48,130,208 
dollars,  or  10,829,296^.  1 6s.  Pie  calculates  the  value  of  the 
ships  and  cargoes  which  would  have  passed  through  the  canal 
that  year  at  467,831,130  dollars,  or  105,262,004/.  5s. 

The  field  for  enterprise  which  will  open  itself,  once  there  is  a 
passage  for  the  ships  of  all  nations  through  the  narrow  strip 
wliich  divides  the  oceans,  appears  almost  unlimited.  The  re- 
moval of  this  barrier  would  be  the  mightiest  event  in  favour  of 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


121 


the  peaceful  intercourse  of  nations  which  the  physical  circum- 
stances of  the  globe  present  to  the  enterprise  of  man,  and  would 
effect  a complete  revolution  in  the  commercial  relations  of  the 
world.  Incalculable  as  would  be  its  advantages  in  the  present 
state  of  commerce,  these  benefits  would  be  multiplied  by  the 
effect  which  such  increased  facilities  of  communication  and 
exchange  would  exert  to  stimulate  the  immense  masses  of  the 
human  race  thus  acted  upon  to  new  efforts  of  industry  in  the 
development  of  the  resources  of  the  richest  portion  of  the  globe, 
and  thereby  to  increase  their  wealth  and  material  comforts, 
whilst,  in  the  eye  of  the  philanthropist,  the  moral  infiuence  upon 
all  that  section  of  the  globe  of  a closer  and  more  intimate  com- 
munication with  the  civilisation  and  institutions  of  the  more 
favoured  countries  of  the  North  Atlantic  will  constitute  a motive 
not  inferior  to  the  aggregate  of  all  the  material  advantages  enu- 
merated above.  The  Emperor  of  France  has  said,  “A  ship 
canal  would  raise  immediately  to  a prodigious  degree  of  prosperity 
those  countries  which  such  an  enterprise  would  cause  to  be  tra- 
versed every  year  by  thousands  of  merchant  vessels,  would  open 
new  marts  for  produce,  and  hasten  by  several  centuries  the  march 
of  Christianity  and  civilisation  over  half  the  globe.” 

It  is  the  great  political,  commercial,  financial,  scientific,  moral, 
and  religious  problem  of  the  age,  which,  when  accomplished, 
will  do  more  to  Christianise  and  civilise  mankind  than  any  other 
project.  This  cosmopolitan  work,  once  completed,  will  endure 
for  all  ages  a monument  of  man’s  enterprise  and  ability,  surpass- 
ing all  others  ever  accomplished.  In  the  words  of  the  Tirrxesj 
‘‘  It  is  the  grandest  physical  work  the  world  can  ivitness  : the  past 
has  seen  nothing  like  it,  and  any  similar  fame  must  be  denied  to 
the  future,  since  there  will  be  no  more  hemispheres  to  join.” 
The  Sun  has  said,  “Ere  long  Darien  will  be  the  great  inter- 
oceanic  portal,  the  door  of  the  seas,  the  entrepot  of  the 
world,  the  store-house  of  nations,  the  grand  highway  of  com- 
merce.” And  its  execution  will  confer  upon  mankind  greater 
blessings  than  mere  monetary  ones.  All  the  commercial 
nations  in  the  world  will  join  in  guaranteeing  the  neutrality  not 
only  of  the  territory  through  which  it  will  pass,  as  has  already 
been  done  by  England  and  America  in  the  Bulwer  and  Clayton 
Treaty,  but  also  of  the  seas  for  1000  miles  or  more  from  either 
terminus.  The  coasts  will  become  common  ground  where  war 
shall  not  approach.  This  is  the  way  towards  securing  Universal 
Peace.  The  Greeks  had  their  games  so  that  they  might  meet 
on  common  ground  once  a year.  The  Isthmus  of  Darien  will  be 
common  ground  every  day  in  every  year,  where  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth  will  meet  in  peace. 

As  a mercantile  investment,  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  inter- 


122 


TSTTTMUS  OF  DARTEN  AND  TTTE  STTfr  CANAL 


oceanic  navigation  will  l)o  one  of  threat  ])ccnniary  Jidvantn^e. 
When  we  consider  the  fleets  of  shi])s  of  all  nations  that  will 
desire  to  save  the  thousands  of  miles  of  distance  which  this  canal 
will  enahlc  them  to  do,  the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking  is  met 
hy  the  certainty  of  the  enormous  ])rofits  which  must  result  to  the 
])ro])rietors.  No  project  has  ever  heen  before  the  ])uhlic  which 
embraces  anything  like  the  objects  to  he  attained  by  this  canal. 
All  other  pro])ositions  have  hut  local  im])ortance,  and  seek  their 
])rofits  from  local  trade  ; but  this  one  is  ada])ted  to  eveiy  shij) 
afloat,  and  seeks  a return  from  the  trade  of  every  country. 
Every  maritime  nation  has  an  interest  in  its  success ; and,  as  a 
railway  makes  its  own  traffic,  so  will  this  work  most  certainly 
greatly  increase  the  commerce  between  the  distantly  se])arated 
countries  which  steam  power  is  only  now  beginning  to  reacdi. 

In  such  a case  statistics  are  almost  superfluous ; it  is  safer  to 
consult  the  history  of  the  progress  of  commerce,  and  argue  from 
it,  than  to  calculate  the  profits  from  the  existing  state  of  things. 
But  even  on  this  limited  ground  it  can  be  shown  that  the  ca])ital 
invested  will  meet  with  a good  return  l)y  charging  for  tollage 
only  a little  more  than  the  amount  saved  in  the  insurance,  with- 
out reference  to  all  the  other  advantages  wdiich  the  canal  will 
offer. 

The  Times,  of  October  15,  1850,  states  : ^^The  traffic  that 
would  pass  through  the  canal,  estimated  now  on  the  basis 
adopted  in  1843,  would  amount  to  1,700,000Z.  In  the  hands  of 
the  most  timid  this  calculation  could  scarcely  be  reduced  to  any 
point  that  would  leave  the  enterprise  other  than  a legitimate 
and  attractive  one.  But  the  great  feature  always  to  be  borne  in 
mind  with  regard  to  it  is,  that  it  would  be  so  identified  with  the 
progress  of  the  world  that  its  returns  at  any  one  period  could 
never  be  taken  to  limit  our  ideas  of  what  they  would  become 
hereafter.  At  the  present  moment,  for  instance,  the  calculations 
would  be  based  on  the  existing  tonnages  of  the  various  maritime 
powers  and  the  present  position  of  the  channels  of  general  com- 
merce ; but  when  we  consider  that  the  shipping  of  the  United 
States’  doubles  itself  every  15  years,  and  that  of  England  still  in- 
creases rapidly,  the  prospects  of  the  changes  to  be  wrought  by 
the  undertaking  wall  appear  still  further  beyond  the  grasp  of 
any  of  the  common  conceptions  of  past  experience.” 

Traffic. 

To  give  an  approximate  idea  of  the  traffic  that  will  be  likely  to 
pass  through  the  canal,  the  following  list  has  been  drawn  up 
from  the  Statistical  Tables  relating  to  Foreign  Countries, 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAKIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


123 


Compiled  from  tlie  Official  Returns  of  the  respective  Countries, 
Part  10,”  and  from  the  “ Statistical  Tables  relating  to  Colonia, 
and  other  Possessions  of  the  United  Kingdom,  presented  to  both 
Houses  of  Parliament  by  command  of  her  Majesty,”  1866. 

It  represents  the  number  and  aggregate  tonnage  of  vessels 
entered  inwards  and  cleared  outwards  at  Pacific  ports,  from  and 
to  Atlantic  ports. 


Number  of 
vessels  entered 
inwards  and 
cleared  out- 
wards. 

Tons. 

Aspmwall  or  Colon,  Navy  Bay,  1864 

533 

483,305 

[These  vessels  would  have  passed  through, 
if  the  canal  had  been  open.] 

Panama,  1804 

276 

364,416 

Punta  Arenas,  Costa  llica,  1864 

140 

112,530 

Guatemala 

No  returns. 

San  Salvador 

Do. 

Mexico,  west  coast 

Do. 

San  Francisco,  California,  1864 

922 

675,481 

[In  1853,  the  number  of  vessels  was  2683, 
and  the  tonnage  was  1,198,827  tons.] 

I Returns 
(incomplete. 

British  Colombia,  1863 

Vancouver’s  Island,  1863 

1171 

223,676 

Honolulu,  &c..  Sandwich  Islands,  1865 

151 

67,068 

[Entered  only.  Entered  and  cleared,  in  1855, 
640  vessels,  and  455,790  tons.] 

Sitka  and  Russian  America 

No  returns. 

Kamtschatka 

Do. 

Ecuador,  Guayaquil  only,  1864 

406 

104,771 

Peru,  1865.  Islay  only 

74 

33,952 

[In  1855,  404,638  tons  of  guano  were  ex- 
ported. In  1858,  the  total  tonnage  was 
830,000  tons.] 

Chili,  1863 

2650 

1,558,650 

Tahiti,  Society  Islands,  Port  of  Papeete,  1864. 

206 

21,361 

Hong  Kong,  1863 

294 

214,138 

[Total  toimage  of  Hong  Kong,  1,806,881 
tons.] 

Nagasaki  and  Hakodadi,  Japan,  1865 

479 

160,484 

Labuan,  1863 

3 

1.670 

[Entered  only.] 

Siam,  Bangkok,  1865 

146 

52,197 

Philippine  Islands,  Manilla,  &c.,  1864 

No  returns. 

Java  and  Madura,  1863 

555 

358,880 

Australia  and  New  Zealand,  1863 

923 

655,586 

[Total  tonnage,  3,834,772  tons.] 

8929 

5,088,165 

124 


ISTHMUS  OF  UAIHEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


Tlie  tonnage  of  China  slionld  1)0  added  to  tlie  .above;  but,  of 
the  10,084  Ih'itisli,  Euro])ean,  and  United  States  vessels,  with 
an  aggregate  tonnage  of  0,458,515  tons,  Avhi(;li  entered  and 
cleared  from  the  ports  of  China  (exclusive  of  Hong  Kong)  in 
1804,  the  statistics  do  not  state  Avhat  number  sailed  from  and  to 
ports  on  the  Atlantic. 

In  1854,  the  commerce  between  the  United  Stites  and  the 
Pacific  (exclusive  of  California)  amounted  to  957, 5hh  tons,  in 
1850  vessels  ; the  value  was  88,950,450  dollars. 

In  1858,  1,000,000  tons  of  freight  were  carried  to  Australia  in 
American  ships. 

In  18G3,  the  value  of  the  imports  into  Australia  was  £31, 204, 507 
Ex])orts 28,378,355 


Total £02,042,052 

The  export  of  bullion  and  specie,  included  in  the  above, 
amounted  to  £12,077,819. 

The  export  of  gold  from  Australia  from  1851  to  1800 
amounted  to  £140,000,000.  This  quantity  of  gold  wouhl  form  a 
pyramid  50  ft.  10  in.  high,  and  10  ft.  square  at  the  base;  its 
cubic  measure  would  be  1994  ft.,  and  it  would  represent  a weight 
1071  tons  3 qrs.  12  lbs.  The  population  of  Australia,  in  1808, 
was  1,439,050. 

The  value  of  the  cargoes  that  would  pass  through  annually 
would  amount  to  150,000,000/. 

Finlvnce. 

The  profits  that  would  be  derived  from  the  canal  would  con- 
sist of  the  tolls  on  ships  passing  through  it.  If  we  add  to  the 
5,088,165  tons,  given  above,  500,000  for  places  from  which  the 
returns  are  wanting  or  incomplete,  and  2,500,000  for  China,  the 
total  will  be  upwards  of  8,000,000  of  tons,  which,  at  5s.  per  ton 
for  tollage,  would  yield  a revenue  of  upwards  of  2,000,000/.  per 
annum. 

Besides  this,  a large  income  would  be  derived  from  the  sale  or 
renting  of  lots  of  land,  which  would  be  required  for  building  on, 
as  a Magic  City”  would  soon  spring  up  at  either  terminus,  and, 
at  a later  period,  land  would  be  in  demand  for  tillage  and  grazing 
farms,  for  raising  vegetables,  and  rearing  cattle  for  the  re  vic- 
tualling of  vessels*  passing  through. 

The  canal  once  cut,  the  expense  of  its  maintenance  would  be 
very  trifling. 

It  may,  then,  be  assumed  that  the  profits  of  the  canal  will  pay 
an  interest  of  38  per  cent,  on  6,000,000/.,  its  probable  cost ; and 

* This  would  render  a larger  part  of  their  spaee  available  for  the  stowage 
of  cargo. 


ISTHMUS  OP  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL.  125 

this  would  be  always  increasing  pari  passu  with  the  increase  of 
the  population  and  commerce  of  the  world. 

Any  company  that  may  undertake  the  construction  of  the 
canal  will  find  it  necessary  to  devise  means  for  the  payment  of  a 
sufficient  rate  of  interest  on  the  capital  whilst  the  work  is  in 
progress.  This  will  be  a matter  of  little  difficulty,  for,  consider- 
ing that  the  company  will  have  a legitimate  claim  upon  the  go- 
vernments of  the  principal  maritime  nations  for  aid  in  the  incep- 
tion of  a work  fraught  with  such  beneficial  results  to  the  commerce 
of  the  world,  doubtless  an  application  to  them  will  be  at  once  re- 
sponded to  by  the  discharge  of  this  obligation  to  the  shareholders. 

Estimating  the  time  that  will  elapse  before  the  canal  can  be 
opened,  and  before  any  revenue  can  be  derived  from  it,  at  four 
years,  and  the  cost  of  construction  at  6 millions  sterling,  and  sup- 
posing that  the  Governments  of  England,  France,|Russia,  Prussia, 
Austria,  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  United  States,  should  pay  between 
them  5 per  cent,  on  the  stock  issued,  the  following  would  be  the 
sums  to  be  advanced  by  each  of  them : 

5 per  cent,  on  1st  issue  of  million  for  4 years  £37,500 
„ 2nd  „ 3 „ 28,125 

„ 3rd  „ 2 „ 18,750 

„ dtli  „ 1 „ 9,375 

Total  subscription  from  each  nation  £93,750 

At  the  audience  which  the  deputation  from  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Junction  Company  had  with  the  Emperor  of  the  French, 
on  the  29th  of  March,  1853,  his  Majesty  declared  his  willingness 
to  pay  all  the  capital  that  would  be  required  for  the  work  over 
and  above  6,000,000Z. ; and  also  to  join  England  and  America  in 
guaranteeing  3 per  cent,  interest,  and  1 per  cent,  for  a sinking 
fund. 

A proposition  was  made  by  the  author  several  years  ago  to 
Lord  Palmerston,  the  basis  of  which  was,  tliat  the  different 
governments  should  cut  the  canal  at  their  joint  expense,  and 
then  throw  it  open  to  the  shipping  of  the  woifd  free  of  tolls  ; but 
the  answer  he  received  was,  that  the  work  must  be  done  by 
private  enterprise.  The  resources  of  each  of  the  contributing 
states  would  be  drawn  upon  very  lightly  to  make  up  a total 
of  6,000,000/.,  which  would  be  500,000/.  each,  for  England, 
France,  Russia,  and  the  United  States;  400,000/.  each,  for 
Austria,  Prussia,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal ; 150,000/.  each,  for 
nine  other  maritime  nations  of  Europe ; and  46,500/.  each,  for 
the  14  South  and  Central  American  States. 

Political  Considerations. 

The  political  considerations  that  will  arise  upon  the  execution 
of  this  work  are  exceedingly  simple.  The  canal  must  not  be 


12G 


ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


niidcr  tlic  control  of  any  one  or  two  of  tlio  ^rent  jiowcrs.  It 
must  l^elong  to  tlic  world,  like  tlie  oceans  wliicli  it  will  connect. 
It  must  be  the  world’s  highway,  o])en  to  the  commerce  of  every 
nation.  The  neutrality  of  the  Isthmus  must  be  guaranteed  by 
all  the  powers  as  also  that  of  both  oceans,  to  the  distance  of 
at  least  2000  miles  from  each  end  of  the  canal.  The  first  ])oint 
has  been  already  agreed  uj)on,  and  the  princijde  of  the  second 
has  been  admitted  by  the  Governments  of  Great  Ilritnin 
and  the  United  States,  in  the  2nd  Article  of  the  Bulwer  and 
Clayton  Treaty  of  1850,*  which  runs  thus  : Vessels  of  Great 
Britain  or  the  United  States  traversing  the  said  canal  shall,  in 
case  of  war  between  the  contracting  parties,  be  exempted  from 
blockade,  detention,  or  capture  by  either  of  the  belligerents  ; 
and  this  provision  shall  extend  to  such  a distance  from  the  two 
ends  of  said  canal  as  it  may  hereafter  be  found  expedient  to 
establish.”  The  Times  of  December  10,  1850,  in  an  editorial 
on  Dr.  McDermott’s  letter  on  the  Darien  Line,  says:  c^Tliis 
work  affects  the  common  interests  of  mankind,  and  the  more 
numerous  the  nations  which  are  concerned  in  it,  the  fewer  are 
the  chances  that  the  free  passage  will  be  interrupted  by  the 
contingencies  of  future  warfare.” 

The  sovereignty  of  New  Granada  over  the  Isthmus  was 
guaranteed  by  the  United  States,  by  the  Treaty  of  December 
12,  1846.  The  former  thereupon  abolished  the  Custom-houses, 
and  agreed  to  admit  all  foreign  imports  into  the  Isthmus  free 
of  duty,  with  the  exception  of  a small  municipal  tax. 

The  Desideratum. 

The  immediate  desideratum  is  a detailed  survey  of  the  line. 
Its  entire  length  being  only  39  miles,  this  may  be  accomplished 
by  a few  engineers  in  three  months ; but  it  would  be  better  to 
devote  six  months,  or  an  entire  dry  season,  to  a thorough  ex- 
amination of  the  line  and  the  adjacent  country.  The  salaries 
and  maintenance  of  the  engineers  for  three  or  six  months  would 
constitute  the  whole  expense,  as  the  Emperor  Napoleon  long 
ago  promised  the  author  the  assistance  of  a vessel  of  war  from 
Martinique,  and  of  an  officer  of  the  Corps  des  Pouts  et  Chaus- 
sees,  and,  doubtless,  the  British  Government  will  fulfil  the 
promise  made  to  him  by  the  late  Lord  Palmerston,  that,  when- 
ever he  should  be  prepared  to  survey  the  line,  he  would  order 
a sliip  and  an  officer  of  the  Royal  Engineers  to  accompany 
him  from  Port  Royal,  Jamaica,  to  Darien.  The  United  States 
Government  will  also,  of  course,  send  a vessel  and  an  engineer. 
With  the  aid  of  the  Government  engineers,  and  parties  of 
sailors  from  the  ships,  and  also  of  a large  number  of  convicts 

* Signed  at  Washington,  April  19  ; ratifications  exchanged  at  Washington, 
July  4,  1850. 


ISTHMUS  OF  DAEIEN  AND  THE  SHIP  CANAL. 


127 


under  a guard  of  soldiers,  wlio  will  be  sent  from  Cartliagena  by 
the  Government  of  Colombia,  the  engineers  of  the  future  as- 
sociation or  company  will  have  no  difficulty  in  completing  a 
thorough  survey  in  six  months.  But,  before  they  commence 
the  survey,  it  will  be  absolutely  necessary  that  the  line  should 
be  marked  out  and  cleared  by  a party  of  macheteros  under  the 
direction  of  a competent  person. 

The  Concession. 

A privilege  for  cutting  a canal  by  this  line,  and  levying  tolls, 
together  with  a concession  of  all  lands  necessary,  and  of  100,000 
fanegadas,  or  200,000  acres,  in  addition,  was  granted  by  the  Go- 
vernment of  New  Granada,  at  Bogota,  on  the  1st  of  June,  1852, 
to  Edward  Cullen,  Charles  Fox,  John  Henderson,  and  Thomas 
Brassey.  This  privilege,  wdiich  was  for  99  years,  lapsed. 

In  1859,  upon  the  author’s  application  at  Bogota,  the  Congress 
gave  authority  to  the  President  to  renew  the  above  concession. 
The  latter  delegated  his  powers  to  Don  Juan  de  Francisco 
Martin,  the  Minister  at  Paris,  by  whom  a conditional  conces- 
sion was  granted  to  Edward  Cullen,  MM.  Paignon  and  Yau- 
daux,  and  Paul  Roger.  But  this  also  having  become  null  and 
void,  the  concession  was  successively  applied  for  by  M.  Paul 
Roger,  on  the  part  of  the  Societe  Civile  du  Canal  du  Darien, 
by  Messrs.  Page  and  Dewsbury,  by  Admiral  Elliott,  MM.  Carion 
and  Yanderhest,  and  M.  Lucien  de  Puydt. 

But  the  reply  of  the  Congress  to  all  applicants  was  that  the 
concession  would  only  be  granted  to  such  individuals,  or  com- 
pany, as  should  have  caused  a detailed  survey  of  the  line  to  be 
made,  and  forwarded  copies  of  the  plans  of  the  engineers  to  the 
Government  at  Bogota. 

Thus,  any  association  that  may  undertake  to  survey  the  line 
will  be  amply  remunerated  by  the  privilege  of  cutting  a canal, 
and  the  concession  of  the  valuable  tract  of  country  which  it  will 
traverse.  The  survey  and  concession  will  constitute  a basis 
upon  which  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  form  a company  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  the  capital  necessary  for  the  execution  of  the 
work. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  confidently  expected  that  this  Society, 
which  reckons  amongst  its  members  some  hundreds  of  scientific 
and  practical  engineers,  will  be  able,  ere  long,  to  give  satisfac- 
tory replies  to  the  following  questions  : — Shall  a narrow  strip  of 
land,  not  40  miles  across,  be  allowed  any  longer  to  remain  a 
barrier  on  the  highway  of  nations  ? Shall  the  engineering 
genius  of  the  most  civilised  nations,  even  with  the  aids  that 
chemistry  places  at  its  service,  in  gun-cotton  and  nitro-glyce- 
rine,  confess  itself  baffied  by  the  notion  of  cutting  a canal  39 
miles  long  ? 


128 


ON  THE  TSTirMUS  OF  PANAMA. 


March  2nd,  18G8. 

BALDWIN  LATHAM,  Piiesident,  in  the  Chair. 

ON  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mil.  J.  Wyatt  said  that  lie  took  a great  interest  in  the  cross- 
ing of  the  Istlinius  of  Panama,  and  had  twice  crossed  it  liiinself. 
He  liad  also  been  in  communication  with  the  countries  of  the 
Isthmus  for  the  last  ten  or  eleven  years.  He  knew  the  engineer 
of  the  Panama  Pailway  very  well  indeed ; and  the  conclusion  to 
which  that  gentleman,  himself  (Mr.  Wyatt),  and  other  persons 
had  arrived,  was  that  Dr.  Cullen  was  labouring  under  an  entire 
delusion.  He  said  that  advisedly,  but  not  in  any  interest  of  the 
Panama  Pailway  Company.  It  was  the  opinion  of  many  who 
knew  that  part  of  the  world  intimately  that  the  idea  that  there 
was  a valley,  as  described  by  Dr.  Cullen,  was  a mistake.  Dr. 
Cullen’s  statements  from  time  to  time  had  been  the  cause  of 
four  exjieditions  for  exploring  purposes  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  namely,  two  under  Mr.  Gisborne,  one  under  Lieutenant 
Strain,  and  the  other  under  Commander  J.  C.  Prevost.  All 
those  expeditions  had  failed  to  find  the  remarkable  indentation 
or  gap  in  the  Cordilleras,  the  existence  of  which  was  alleged  by 
the  author  of  the  paper.  Since  Dr.  Cullen’s  first  paper  was  read 
to  the  society,  he  (Mr.  Wyatt)  had  received  a copy  of  the 
Fayiama  Herald,  in  which  was  published  a paper  from  the 
National  Archives  in  Bogota,  New  Granada,  being  a description 
of  Santo  Domingo  del  Darien,  compiled  in  the  year  1754,  by 
officers  of  the  Spanish  government  from  an  actual  exploration  of 
the  Isthmus.  That  paper  described  all  the  available  crossings  of 
the  Darien  country  and  the  different  settlements  there.  One  of 
those  pressings  was  over  the  very  part  described  by  Dr.  Cullen 
— the  valley  of  the  Sucubti.  A section  of  the  Sucubti  river 
was  taken  by  Mr.  Gisborne,  and  showed  an  elevation  of  a thou- 
sand feet  above  the  two  seas.  Mr.  Gisborne  explored  the  valley 


ON  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA. 


129 


of  the  Sucubti ; but  he  never  found  the  gap  in  the  mountains. 
A navigator  or  commander  of  some  ship  was  said  by  Dr.  Cullen 
to  have  seen  the  gap  from  his  vessel  at  sea,  but  Mr.  Gisborne 
and  Lieutenant  Strain  had  never  seen  it,  and  none  of  the 
Spaniards  and  Indians  of  old  had  ever  found  it.  It  might 
therefore  be  concluded  that  it  was  known  only  to  Dr.  Cullen. 
The  first  man  (Vasco  Nunez)  who  crossed  the  Isthmus  and 
discovered  the  Pacific. Ocean  in  1513,  passed  across  almost  the 
very  land  described  by  the  paper,  and  persons  continued  to  cross 
that  very  region  in  search  of  gold  for  more  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  afterwards.  They  then  gave  it  up  for  the 
Panama  route  in  disgust,  simply  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
crossing,  but  not  before  it  had  been  thoroughly  tested  by  Indians 
and  Europeans.  The  city  of  Panama  was  established,  and  since 
that  time  the  great  transit  route  between  the  Pacific  and  the 
Atlantic  had  been  that  from  the  Chagres  river  and  Aspinwall  to 
Panama.  He  would  notice  some  extracts  from  the  paper  to 
which  he  had  referred  and  which  was  dated  1754.  It  described 
seven  distinct  travelled  routes  over  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  and  in 
close  proximity  to  the  course  described  by  Dr.  Cullen. 

According  to  that  paper,  there  was  a military  station  at  Chapi- 
gana.  Gold  was  being  washed  at  La  Marea  river.  There  were 
christianised  Indians  at  Balzas,  twenty-two  Indian  families,  and 
at  Tucuti,  which  was  near,  there  were  coloured  people  of  Spanish 
extraction,  twenty-five  working  men,  and  seven  old  men  over 
seventy  years  of  age.  They  washed  for  gold,  and  the  chief  had 
five  male  and  five  female  slaves.  Going  up  the  Chiicunaqui 
river  (on  Dr.  Cullen’s  route),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yaviza,  there 
were  twenty-three  christianised  Indians  brought  from  the  moun- 
tains by  the  Jesuit  fathers  ten  years  previously.  Ascending 
Chucunaqni  river  to  the  small  river  Tupiza  there  was  a road 
there  to  the  northern  coast  (the  Atlantic)  to  a place  called  Gandi 
or  Acanti.  Ascending  the  river  for  two  days  in  small  boats  and 
walking  two  days  more,  the  foot  of  the  general  range  of  moun- 
tains was  reached,  and  in  another  day  the  ascent  was  made.  It 
would  be  noticed  that  in  the  description  of  each  of  the  crossings 
there  was  always  mention  made  of  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
and  of  a journey  of  one  or  two  days’  ascent  before  the  summit 
was  reached.  The  paper  in  question  then  went  on  to  say  : 

“ There  is  then  a deseent  to  tlie  head  waters  of  the  Gandi,  whieh  flows  into 
the  Northern  Sea  (Atlantic),  and  is  inhabited  by  forty  families  more  or  less 
Indians.  From  Gandi  the  north  sea  is  reached  by  boats  in  three  hours.” 

This  was  crossing  No.  1.  Then  came  crossing  No.  2.  - 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Tupiza,  following  the  Chucunaqni,  is  the  mouth  of 
the  Tuqueza  river,  and  ascending  the  latter  in  small  boats,  a landing  is 
reached,  inhabited  by  four  families,  and  from  this  place  in  one  day’s  walk  the 

K 


130 


ON  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA. 


mountains  arc  crossed,  and  tl»c  small  river  Pito  is  reached,  and  following  its 
banks  for  half  a day  its  mouth  is  reached,  which  em|)tics  into  the  Northern 
Sea  at  the  beginning  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  in  front  of  the  Mogotc  I’elado.” 

Next  was  crossing  No.  3. 

“ From  the  mouth  of  the  Tuqueza  and  following  the  Chucunaqui  river  two 
days,  is  found  the  Tabugaiuli  river ; one  day  on  this  to  the  mouths  of  the  Sueti 
and  another  small  river;  there  live  ten  fainilies.  To  the  North  (Atlantic) 
you  journey  two  leagues  by  land  from  Tabugandi  to  Sueti,  followin'’;  the  Sucti 
river  half  a day’s  march  on  foot  you  arrive  at  the  foot  of  the  Cordillera, 
whence  you  march  in  one  and  half  hours  to  Sucubti”  (here  the  route  cartie 
across  that  of  Dr.  Cullen),  “which  small  river  has  its  source  at  the  foot  of 
the  Cordillera.” 

It  was  always  ^‘tlie  foot”  of  the  Clordillera  that  was  iriciitioned. 
There  was  no  gap  described. 

“One  day’s  distance  from  the  mouth  of  Tabugandi,  following  the  Chucu- 
naqui up  stream,  is  the  inoulh  of  the  Sucubti.  The  village  of  Sucubti  is  two 
days’  journey  in  small  boats.  This  village  consists  of  twelve  families,  and  on 
its  livulet,  Ipeti,  seven  or  eight  families  more.  Following  the  river  on  foot 
for  half  a day  you  arrive  at  the  foot  of  the  Cordillera;  from  the  foot  to  the 
summit  is  about  half  an  hour’s  walk,  lienee  you  can  see  the  Northern  Ocean, 
and  from  the  summit  you  descend  in  half  an  hour  to  head  waters  of  A^alatu- 
mate,  hence  in  two  and  a half  days’  journey  on  foot  you  reach  the  village  of 
the  same  name,  and  from  here,  embarking  in  boats ; you  reach  the  sea  at  Cali- 
donia  in  half  a day” — to  the  Atlantic. 

The  very  expression  used  was  summit”  and  the  summit  there 
mentioned  was  the  lowest  which  probably  could  then  be  dis- 
covered, and  that  after  so  many  years’  residence  in  Darien  by 
S])aniards  and  Indians. 

But  still  it  was  half  an  hour’s  walk  from  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain, after  climbing  up  the  valley  of  the  Sucubti  on  foot  for 
half  a day.”  That  was  Dr.  Cullen’s  gap;  the 'names  would  be 
found  in  his  paper.  It  was  nearly  the  same  route  as  described 
by  ]\Ir.  Gisborne,  who  made  a survey,  and  also  by  Lieutenant 
Strain.  Then  followed  crossing  No.  4. 

“ One  day’s  journey  from  Sucubti  mouth  up  Chucunaqui  to  rivulet  Aloreti. 
Up  thence  one  day  you  came  to  a place  with  eight  fainilies,  who,  in  order  to 
get  to  the  Northern  Sea  by  the  river  Nabagandi,  in  front  of  the  Isle  of  Pines, 
spend  two  days,  and  the  journey  is  very  fatiguing.” 

In  the  paper  from  which  he  had  quoted  there  were  described 
seven  distinct  crossings  of  the  Isthmus  at  Darien,  at  what  were 
supposed  to  be  the  seven  most  feasible  points  for  transit,  and  in 
all  of  which  the  mountain  was  met  with.  Dr.  Cullen  having 
searched  the  archives  at  Bogota,  it  was  remarkable  that 
he  liad  not  discovered  the  paper  containing  the  account  of 
these  crossings.  It  had  been  in  existence  since  1754,  and  was 
])ublished  in  the  Panama  Star  and  Herald  of  January  5,  1868. 
it  must  be  presumed  that  the  Spaniards,  who  were  in  possession 
(4’  Darien  for  two  hundred  years,  could  find  no  better  way  of 


ON  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA. 


131 


crossing  tlie  Isthmus  than  at  Panama,  and  therefore  abandoned 
Darien.  Their  avaricious  and  enterprising  spirit  for  gold,  and 
their  desire  to  cross  the  Isthmus  readily,  and  to  perform  their  holy 
mission  to  christianise  the  new  world,  would  hold  to  the  Darien 
route  as  long  as  there  was  any  advantage  in  it.  In  the  old 
paper,  from  which  the  account  he  had  quoted  was  taken,  the 
historiographer  described  in  minute  detail  the  mode  of  life  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Darien  and  its  topography.  The  statement 
showed  that  he  had  examined  the  country  foot  by  foot.  Vasco 
de  Nunez,  and  the  Spaniards  after  him,  knew  too  well  from  ex- 
perience that  Darien  was  unhealthy,  and  difficult  to  cross  ; and 
the  valleys  on  the  two  sides  of  the  mountain  were  so  pestiferous 
that  they  were  driven  to  the  crossing  at  Panama.  Even  that 
was  not  much  better,  as  far  as  his  (Mr.  Wyatt’s)  experience 
went.  Dr.  Cullen  laid  great  stress  on  the  healthiness  of  tlie 
country.  He  (Mr.  Wyatt)  recollected  that  when  he  crossed  the 
Isthmus  for  the  first  time  the  whole  of  the  persons  who  came  off 
the  ocean  steam-ship  had  to  wait  at  Panama  for  nine  or  ten 
days,  and  nearly  every  individual  was  attacked  with  fever.  It  was 
curious  to  notice  from  morning  to  morning  how  many  less 
persons  came  to  breakfast  at  the  hotel,  and  at  last  the  number 
dwindled  down  to  three.  There  were  fifty -five  cases  of  sickness 
and  one  death  during  that  short  time.  He  denied  the  correct- 
ness of  Dr.  Cullen’s  theory  of  the  existence  of  the  valley  de- 
scribed ; but,  assuming  it  to  be  correct.  Dr.  Cullen  was  proposing 
to  cut  a canal  through  a summit  of  from  180  ft.  to  200  ft.  on 
his  imaginary  section.  Supposing  he  cut  through  a summit 
only  20  miles  long,  then  the  work  would  be  one  of  enormous 
magnitude.  The  canal  would  be  of  no  use  as  a ship  canal 
unless  it  went  from  sea  to  sea  on  the  same  level.  Locking  up 
and  down  would  deter  ships  from  using  that  route.  There 
must  be  a clean  cut  through,  as  at  the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 
Assuming  the  above  length  of  20  miles,  with  a depth  of  only 
180  ft.,  and  a width  of  120  yards  at  water  level,  as  at  Suez, 
there  would  be  required  the  removal  of  500,000,000  cubic  yards 
of  material,  which  would  occupy  20,000  men  50  yeaus,  or  100 
steam  excavators  for  50  years.  If  the  cost  were  put  at  the 
moderate  sum  of  2s.  per  cubic  yard  (though  it  would  be  nearly 
4s.),  the  expense  would  represent  a sum  of  50,000,000/.  sterling. 
The  material  excavated  would  be  equal  to  a cubic  mass  standing 
on  an  area  equal  to  that  of  Hyde  Park,  and  300  yards  high,  or 
a pyramid  900  yards  high  of  the  same  area  at  the  base.  The 
earliest  capital  would  be  increased  fourteen  times,  and  the  mean 
capital  four  times ; that  was,  assuming  the  work  was  done  in  a 
most  rapid  way,  and  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances. 
In  Harper's  Magazine^  March,  April,  and  May,  1855,  there  was 

K 2 


132 


ON  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  FANAMA. 


a very  interesting  description  of  Lieutenant  Strain’s  expedition 
in  18f)3-4.  He  went  to  very  great  j)ains  in  finding  a ])roj)er 
crossing,  and  a great  amount  of  detail  was  given  on  tliat  sul) ject. 
Tlie  ])a])cr  was  also  profusely  illustrated.  It  would  li.avc  been 
well  if  Dr.  Cullen  had  given  extracts  from  that  ])aper,  and  also 
from  the  ])uhlished  reports  of  Mr.  Gisborne,  instead  of  giving  so 
much  of  his  own  opinion  and  exj)erience.  It  seemed  to  him 
(Mr.  Wyatt)  that  the  canal  crossing  of  the  Isthmus  of  l\anama 
was  a matter  for  ])ostcrity.  There  was  only  one  way  to  get 
through  the  backbone  of  Darien  or  l^anama,  and  that  was  to 
use  the  new  machine  wliich  the  Americans  called  the  American 
railway  constructor,  which  was  described  as  a miracle  in  the  way 
of  excavation. 

Mr.  Gore  said  lie  knew  a little  about  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
Ilis  visits  had  been  more  extended  than  those  of  Mr.  Wyatt,  and 
he  could  fully  corroborate  all  that  that  gentleman  had  said  in 
reference  to  the  Darien  Canal.  In  1857,  while  on  his  way  to 
South  America,  he  met  at  St.  Thomas  with  General  Muscau, 
who  was  then  President-Elect  of  the  United  States  of  Columliia. 
On  passing  from  St.  Thomas  to  his  (^Ir.  Gore’s)  destination  at 
Carthagena,  much  of  his  time  was  expended  in  discussing  tliat 
particular  subject  with  General  Muscau,  for  the  general  had  a 
very  strong  feeling  against  the  continuation  of  the  charter  as 
granted  by  the  republic  to  the  United  States.  They  considered 
tliat  they  had  made  a very  bad  bargain,  and  they  were  very 
anxious,  as  far  as  ])ossible,  to  rescind  that  contract,  or  otherwise 
to  promote  something  that  would  act  as  a competitor  with  it. 
lie  informed  him  (Mr.  Gore)  that  the  government  had  under- 
taken a variety  of  surveys  totally  independent  of  those  which 
had  been  undertaken  by  the  English  and  American  engineers ; 
and  in  so  many  words,  he  stated  exactly  what  Mr.  Wyatt  had 
stated,  namely,  that  the  happy  valley  which  Dr.  Cullen  had  dis- 
covered was  certainly  not  discoverable  in  any  point  approximate 
to  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  It  would  be  scarcely  necessary  to 
discuss  the  Darien  question  if  persons  were  acquainted  with 
tlie  profile  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  nature  of  the  bay  in 
which  the  author  proposed  his  canal  should  terminate,  and  those 
])cculiar  difficulties  which  were  connected  with  the  construction 
of  heavy  earthworks  in  that  locality.  Dr.  Cullen  proposed  to 
make  liis  Pacific  terminus  in  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel.  The 
wliole  of  the  Bay  of  Panama  was  continually  silting  up.  In 
1857,  a steamer  of  800  tons  burden  could  come  within  a com- 
])aratively  short  distance  of  land  in  the  Bay  of  Panama  ; but  now 
the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company  had  to  disembark  their 
y)assengers  op])Osite  an  island.  The  silting  up  was  caused  by 
the  wash  which  occurred  from  the  range  of  mountains  to  the 


ON  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA. 


133 


northwest  of  the  route,  and  also  by  the  wash  wliich  was  brought 
ill  by  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.  He  (Mr.  Gore)  was  connected 
with  a company  in  Chili  whose  intention  was  to  use  San  Miguel 
as  a port  of  embarkation,  but  it  was  found  that  a vessel  of  over 
600  tons  burden  could  not  be  got  within  three  miles  of  the 
coast.  The  whole  of  the  water  was  shoal  water,  and  the  canal 
would  have  had  to  be  dredged  three  miles  from  the  beach  to 
enable  vessels  to  pass  through  or  lie  at  anchor.  Another  serious 
difficulty  in  connexion  with  San  Miguel  Bay,  was  the  pre- 
valence of  shoals  and  rocks  in  what  might  be  called  the  bight. 
But  supposing  the  engineering  difficulties  were  surmounted,  and 
there  was  a bay  sufficiently  capacious,  and  with  good  anchorage 
and  ample  water  space  on  the  Pacific  side,  what  would  be  the 
consequence  of  the  bay  on  the  Atlantic  side  ? Those  who  had 
navigated  the  Atlantic  side,  especially  of  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
knew  that  it  was  fast  silting  up,  and  that  many  vessels  which 
could  some  time  ago  lie  at  anchor  there,  were  now  obliged  to 
discharge  at  new  ports.  What  had  taken  place  in  the  year  1866, 
in  connexion  with  the  Tehuantepec  route  would  corroborate  the 
statement  as  to  the  fallacy  of  the  Darien  scheme.  The  im- 
perial government  granted  the  ratification  of  a concession  of  a 
railway  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  in  opposition  to  a 
concession  which  had  been  granted  by  the  republican  govern- 
ment to  a company  which  had  been  formed  in  New  Orleans. 
A staff  of  engineers  had  surveyed  several  points  along  the  line, 
and  one  of  them.  Colonel  Murphy,  went  to  see  this  identical 
spot.  The  answer  was,  that  it  was  perfectly  ridiculous  to 
commence  a survey,  as  the  obstacles  were  so  great  that  no  capital 
that  any  company  could  raise  would  be  sufficient  to  carry  out 
such  an  affair.  It  was  an  Englishman  who  made  the  report. 
He  (Mr.  Gore)  thought  that  if  it  was  essential  that  there  should 
be  a ship  canal  from  ocean  to  ocean,  some  notice  should  be 
taken  of  the  Tehuantepec  route,  that  it  should  not  be  dismissed 
in  so  cavalier  a manner  as  Dr.  Cullen  had  dismissed  it  in  the 
paper.  It  had  some  points  which  were  worthy  of  consideration 
though  all  the  crossings  presented  some  difficulty  as  regarded 
the  want  of  water  for  locking.  To  attempt  to  cut  a canal 
without  locks  was  impracticable,  and  therefore  the  route  should 
be  selected  where  the  water  supply  was  sufficient  to  make  up  for 
waste  by  lockage. 

Mr.  Moss  said  that  he  had  given  a little  attention  to  the 
various  projects  for  a railway  from  sea  to  sea,  and  to  the  general 
great  importance  of  carrying  traffic  across  the  Isthmus.  In  the 
United  States  they  were  doing  quite  enough  for  the  passenger 
traffic,  and,  perhaps,  for  the  light  freight.  There  would  be  two 
roads  across  in  three  or  four  years  undoubtedly ; but  it  struck 


184 


ON  TTTE  TSTIIMTJS  OF  FANAMA. 


liim  tliat,  soniewlicre  in  flic  centre  of  tlie  continent,  tliere  on^lit 
to  lie  a canal.  The  best  route  'wliicli  lie  knew  was  tlie  one  from 
Cliiriqui.  That  was  proposed  forty  years  ai^o  on  the  Atlantic 
side.  Since  that  time  there  had  been  almost  entire  silence  on 
the  subject.  It  was  useless  to  talk  about  the  transit  across  the 
continent  unless  commercial  harbours  could  be  formed.  A 
central  route  for  ships,  such  as  was  ])roposed  by  the  author  of 
the  paper,  would  be  a great  advantage  to  the  commerce  of  the 
world,  and  w\as  becoming  more  and  more  important  every  day  as 
the  settlements  along  the  ihicitic  side  were  increasing.  The 
islands  of  the  I’acific  were  also  becoming  more  and  more  im- 
])ortant  every  year  ; and  hence  he  was  very  glad  to  see  the  cpies- 
tion  of  a canal  taken  up  by  a body  so  competent  to  examine  it  as 
the  Society  of  Engineers.  As  a citizen  of  the  United  States  he 
felt  a very  great  interest  in  the  subject.  The  matter  was  one  of 
international  interest,  and  he  believed  that  the  time  wrmld  soon 
come  when  the  great  commei’cial  ])owers  of  the  wairld  w'ould 
decide  that  no  one  nation  should  l)e  allow'ed  to  interpose  a 
barrier  to  the  crossing  of  the  Isthmus  either  by  railroad  or 
canal  if  a suitable  route  could  be  found  for  the  jmrpose. 

^Ir.  Laiige  said  that  it  seemed  to  him  that  the  main  difficulty 
in  the  scheme  was  the  lockage,  in  conserpience  of  the  altitude  of 
the  country  between  the  two  oceans,  lie  wished  to  know^  wdiat 
the  altitude  w^as. 

The  Pkesident  said  that  Dr.  Cullen  gave  180  ft.  of  cutting, 
and  ^Ir.  Gisborne  gave  930  ft. 

Mr.  Large  said  there  w^as  a wide  difference  betw^een  the  two. 
The  question  w^as  whether  Dr.  Cullen  had  taken  the.  altitude  by 
an  aneroid  barometer,  as  estimates  based  on  such  observations 
were  erroneous. 

Mr.  Wyatt  said  that  Dr.  Cullen  had  not  taken  any  levels  by 
the  barometer  or  any  other  instrument. 

^Ir.  Large  said  that  he  had  heard  of  many  attempts  to  cross 
wdiich  had  not  succeeded.  The  w^ater  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
w^as  very  shallow,  but  perhaps  that  difficulty  could  be  overcome, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Suez  Canal,  by  extending  piers  into  deep 
water. 

Mr.  Wyatt  said  that  it  was  an  unfortunate  thing  for  the 
commerce  of  the  world,  that  a great  difficulty  had  crept  in 
lately  wdth  respect  to  the  Isthmus  transit.  There  was  an 
arrangement  between  the  Panama  llaihvay  Company  and  the 
Government  of  New  Grenada,  that  for  many  years  to  come  the 
Kail  way  Company  should  have  the  exclusive  right  of  crossing 
the  Isthmus.  Whoever  sought  to  cross  the  Isthmus  by  a rival 
])roject  for  the  benefit  of  the  commerce  of  the  w’^orld,  must 
now  indemnify,  and  ])ay  off  the  Ikxnama  Kaihvay  Company,  at 


ON  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA. 


135 


a tremendous  sacrifice.  Their  line  paid  about  25  per  cent.,  and 
was  a most  valuable  property. 

The  President  asked  Mr.  Wyatt  whether,  in  his  opinion,  a 
canal  would  succeed  from  ocean  to  ocean  at  a lower  level  than 
the  mean  of  the  oceans. 

Mr.  Wyatt  said  that  the  canal  must  go  to  the  lower  or  sea 
level  to  be  of  any  use  to  the  commerce  of  the  two  great  seas  of 
the  world.  Anything  less  than  that  would  appear  to  be  useless. 
Locks  were  a very  great  impediment  to  traffic,  and  especially  on 
a shipping  canal.  In  such  a case  they  would  amount  to  a pro- 
hibition of  commerce.  It  wnuld  be  better  to  have  a railway 
and  tranship  the  goods,  than  go  through  the  locks  of  a canal. 
Imagine  a large  portion  of  the  commerce  of  the  world  going  up 
and  down  a locked  canal  where  only  one  ship  could  pass  at  a 
time  ! It  wnuld  be  perfectly  absurd.  It  'would  not  carry  the 
traffic,  now  going  from  one  ocean  to  the  other  by  the  raihvay, 
which  was  not  a tithe  of  the  commerce  there  should  be  passing 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  although  the  Panama  Railway 
Company  paid  25  per  cent,  out  of  their  one  train  each  way  })er 
day.  He  considered  that  it  would  not  be  worth  while  to  carry 
out  a scheme  for  a canal,  unless  locks  could  be  avoided,  as  it 
could  not  pay. 

Mr.  Bryant  asked  Mr.  Wyatt  if  he  knew  whether  there  was 
any  difference  betw^een  the  levels  of  the  two  oceans. 

Mr.  Wyatt  said  that  practically  speaking  there  was  no  dif- 
ference between  the  levels.  The  mean  levels  of  the  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  were  identical.  That  showed  that  probably  there  wns 
a subterranean  communication  between  the  two  oceans.  There 
was  an  extreme  tide  in  the  Bay  of  Panama  ranging  from  16  to 
20  ft.,  while  in  the  Atlantic  the  maximum  was  about  18  in. 
only.  The  difference  of  the  tides  was  due  simply  to  the  peculiar 
currents,  and  configuration  of  the  coasts  of  the  two  oceans.  A 
person  observing  such  difference  of  tides  in  two  oceans  so  near 
together  was  led  to  become  incredulous  of  the  doctrines  of  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  and  to  suspect  that  the  moon  had  nothing  what- 
ever to  do  with  the  tides.  On  the  Pacific  coast  of  Salvador, 
the  spring  tide  did  not  rise  more  than  10  ft.  There  were  phe- 
nomena in  respect  to  the  tides  in  this  part  of  the  world  whicli 
no  one  could  comprehend  or  explain.  They  were  much  influenced 
by  the  local  circumstances  of  the  two  oceans. 

The  President  said  that  he  was  sorry  Dr.  Cullen  was  not 
present  to  answer  the  objections  that  had  been  raised  against 
his  scheme.  There  could  be  no  doubt  that  a ship  canal  for 
connecting  the  great  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ocean,  through  some 
point  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  or  Darien,  would  be  a very 
desirable  undertaking.  To  our  country  it  would  offer  very  gre? 


136 


ON  THE  TRTITMUS  OF  PANAMA. 


facilities  of  access  to  onr  colonics,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand, 
and  would  p!;reatly'  facilitate  our  trade  to  Cliina,  Peru,  and  the 
S])ice  Islands.  It  would  likewise  he  an  advantage  to  all  the 
trading  nations  and  maritime  ])owers  of  the  earth,  and  therefore, 
as  Mr.  Moss  had  said,  the  (juestion  was  one  of  an  international 
character.  Unfortunately  the  Cordillera  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
Itocky  Mountains  on  the  other,  seemed  to  inter))ose  an  insuner- 
ahlc  harrier  to  such  a work.  It  seemed  that  Dr.  Cullen  had  in 
liis  own  mind  struck  u])on  what  had  heen  called  ^‘a  happy 
valley,”  through  these  formidahle  mountains,  hut  it  certainly 
ap])eared  from  what  had  just  heen  said,  and  from  what  had  heen 
said  in  other  places,  that  there  were  not  sufficient  reasons  for 
hclieving  that  such  a ])assage  existed.  The  author  was  about 
setting  out  on  a journey  to  make  further  discoveries  in  these 
countries,  and  he  (The  President)  trusted  he  might  he  successful 
in  obtaining  such  information  as  would  warrant  the  hoj)e  that 
we  might  some  day  see  a cut  made  through  the  Isthmus  which 
divided  the  two  oceans.  While  the  ])rescnt  Emperor  of  the 
Erciich  Avas  an  exile  in  England,  he  took  ])art  in  a discussion  at 
the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers,  on  a scheme  which  was  j)ro- 
])osed  for  crossing  the  Isthmus  through  the  lakes  Nicaragua  and 
Ijcou.  It  was  then  considered  that  that  route  offered  facilities 
which  no  other  route  afforded.  They  conceived  that  by  the 
crossing  of  a shipping  canal  through  this  Isthmus,  the  line  of 
the  canal  would  become  a centre  of  commerce  for  a very  large 
district,  and  that  the  two  lakes  containing  a large  amount  of 
Avater  could  he  used  as  docks,  and  so  afford  advantages  which  no 
other  scheme  AA^ould  comprise.  It  Avas  also  thought  that  there 
Avere  a number  of  naAugable  rivers  extending  some  distance  into 
the  surrounding  country,  by  means  of  which  the  commerce 
might  be  rapidly  distributed  over  the  two  continents. 


CHRISTIANITY  AND  ENGLISH  WEALTH. 


653 


into  mere  ceremonial,  never  limited  itself  to 
the  hopes  and  fears  of  a future  life,  never 
forgot  to  fashion  human  character  on 
Christian  models.  Having  its  hands  free, 
as  nowhere  else,  our  religion  has  used  doc- 
trines to  produce  practical  results  in  human 
behavior.  The  results  appear  in  the  eco- 
nomic value  of  a man  of  this  race  ; as  an  in- 
ventor, a master  or  a workman ; as  a mer- 
chant or  a ship  captain  or  a clerk  or  a sailor  ; 
he  is  apt  to  have  in  him  some  reserve  of  in- 
visible power ; and  in  one  or  another  form 
such  power  is  the  cause  of  wealth,  in  modern 
societies.  If  the  Anglican  peoples  are  the 
most  wealthy — and  no  one  doubts  it — the 
greater  freedom  with  which  our  religion  has 
acted  upon  the  practical  mind  of  our  hu- 
manity is  the  obvious  explanation  of  this  su- 
periority. The  individual  man  whom  we 
may  have  under  examination,  may  not  be  a 
Christian  by  profession ; but  he  has  inherited 
from  a Christian  ancestry  the  qualities — all 
moral  at  their  root — which  make  him  an 
economic  force. 

This  economic  order  has  followed  the  po- 
litical order  in  being  one  of  liberty.  Against 
some  results  of  liberty  in  the  order  of  wealth, 
a protest  has  grown  into  considerable 
strength  in  the  last  twenty-five  years.  The 
freedom  of  the  strongest  in  a world  of  pro- 
duction tends  to  make  others  his  servants  ; 
and  strength  has  found  new  means  of  fraud 
upon  weakness.  A movement  to  check  such 
evil  tendencies  began  among  Christian  peo- 
ple as  soon  as  the  evils  attracted  attention  ; 
and  the  mal-distribution  of  good  things  will 
be  doubtless  checked  as  far  as  possible  with 
the  hearty  support  of  the  influence  of  our 
religion. 

But  the  careless  observer  may  miss  the 
present  value  of  Christianity  in  the  economic 
world  by  a too  ready  belief  in  every  charge 
of  injustice,  and  by  overlooking  an  important 
part  of  the  case.  Of  one  thing  we  are  per- 
fectly confident.  If  at  any  time — or  * at  this 
time — you  have  convinced  the  Anglican 
Christian  mind  that  Justice  requires  any 
specific  legislation  in  restraint  of  the  rich, 
that  legislation  will  soon  be  on  the  statute 
books.  Nay,  if  from  obscure  springs  evils 
are  flowing,  these  hidden  springs  will  be 


searched  out.  For  my  part,  I could  feel  no 
such  confidence  in  a non-Christian  people. 
To  prevent  oppression  by  the  rich,  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament  began  early  to  build  up  fences 
of  law ; and  it  has  never  ceased  to  build 
them. 

The  English  Church  has  often  been 
the  first  to  demand  such  laws,  and  its  moral 
weight  has  always  been  on  the  side  of  the 
poor.  Let  me  illustrate  by  one  of  the 
earlier  forms  of  check.  It  is  a prayer  ap- 
pointed to  be  read  in  all  the  churches,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Edward  the  Sixth.  It  is 
valuable  evidence  because  it  breathes  the 
very  spirit  of  English  Christianity ; and  be- 
cause this  prayer  was  read  before  rich  and 
poor  alike,  the  church  in  this  way  reminding 
the  rich  of  their  duties  in  the  presence  of  the 
poor.  All  England  heard  this  prayer;  and 
I am  confident  that  its  effect  surpassed  that 
which  the  best  possible  law  on  the  subject 
could  have  produced.  Here  are  the  words 
of  this  prayer  : 

“ We  heartily  pray  thee  to  send  thy  Holy  Spirit 
into  the  hearts  of  them  that  possess  the  pastures  and 
grounds  of  the  earth,  that  they,  remembering  them- 
selves to  be  thy  tenants,  may  not  rack  or  stretch  out 
the  rents  of  their  houses  or  lands,  nor  yet  take  un- 
reasonable fines  or  moneys,  after  the  manner  of  cov- 
etous worldlings ; but  so  let  them  out  that  the  in- 
habitants thereof  may  be  able  to  pay  the  rents,  and 
to  live  and  nourish  their  families,  and  remember  the 
poor.  Give  them  grace  also  to  consider  that  they 
are  but  strangers  and  pilgrims  in  this  world,  having 
here  no  dwelling  place,  but  seeking  one  to  come ; 
that  they,  remembering  the  short  continuance  of  this 
life,  may  be  content  with  that  which  is  sufficient,  and 
not  join  house  to  house,  and  land  to  land,  to  the  im- 
poverishment of  others : but  so  behave  themselves 
in  letting  their  tenements,  lands  and  pastures  that, 
after  this  life  they  may  be  received  into  everlasting 
habitations.” 

There  speaks  the  voice  of  English  Chris- 
tianity, and  that  voice  is  still  heard  all  over 
Angledom.  And,  as  I think,  there  is  no 
other  force  in  all  the  world  which  has  had, 
or  now  has,  a tithe  of  the  restraining  power 
of  this  Christian  pleading  against  strength 
and  for  weakness. 

There  is,  however,  a large  fact  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  wealth — as  it  is  effected  in  Eng- 
lish production — which  is  wholly  obscured 
by  our  current  discussions.  The  fact  re- 


654 


LfNDERiiROUXn 

ferred  to  is  that  the  large  wealth  could  not 
exist  if  a considerable  part  of  it  did.  not  flow 
through  the  ma‘n  body  of  the  people.  Mod- 
ern wealth  outruns  all  ancient  dreams  in  its 
vast  proportions.  But  this  aggregate  in- 
cludes all  the  less  and  the  little  as  well  as 
the  great ; and  the gtrat  could  not  exist  7ait/i- 
out  the  less  a7id the  little.  If  that  nightmare 
of  our  fancy,  the  absorption  of  all  wealth  by 
a few,  should  become  a living  reality,  it  is 
certain  that  the  increase  of  wealth  would 
come  to  a sudden  end.  The  multitude  as  a 
consume/'  is  the  cause  of  modern  wealth  ; and 
that  means  a wide  and  large  enjoyment  of 
the  gains  of  a rtgime  of  Liberty.  The 
emancipation  of  our  slaves  created  fortunes 
by  making  the  slaves  consumers  on  a larger 
scale.  So,  a wide  diffusion  of  the  blessings 
of  abundance  has  followed  from  the  Chris- 
tian instruction  and  inspiration  which  have 
made  Anglicans  industrious,  inventive,  fru- 
gal, patient,  and  assured  of  the  future.  The 
belief  of  collectivists  that  we  might  dry  up 
these  springs  of  vigor  and  endurance,  and 
still  have  all  the  abundance,  is  certainly  not 
supported  by  any  evidence. 

I must  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  English 
Christianity  has  wrought  its  great  work  in 
creating  English  wealth  by  moving  upon  the 


RA/IAWIY  JX  LOXDOX. 

deep  forces  of  character,  and  by  giving  cliar- 
acter  a free  course.  1 n other  words,  commer- 
cial and  industrial  'liberty  is  the  offspring 
of  English  religion.  No  socialistic  scheme 
of  binding  Samson  that  he  may  grind  in 
our  mills  can  satisfy  our  Christian  ideals. 
We  know  that  he  will  grind  better  ’in  free- 
dom ; and  we  hope  to  be  able  to  see  to  it 
that  he  does  not  use  his  great  strength  to 
slay  us  and  our  children. 

The  Christian  task  in  economics  remains, 
that  which  John  W'esley  achieved  in  his 
time,  to  stimulate  and  educate  productive 
energy.  Many  thousands  in  every  genera- 
tion are  not  reached  and  inspired.  Could 
we  reach  them  there  would  be  vastly  more 
wealth.  The  men  who  fail  in  industry,  in 
prudence,  Jn  frugality,  in  self-restraint,  do 
not  fail  under  Christian  inspirations  but  for 
lack  of  them.  It  is  not  the  fault  of  our  re- 
ligion that  they  are  poor,  that  they  throw 
away  their  gains  in  Wall  Street  or  in  saloons, 
that  they  live  beyond  their  means  or  make 
unwise  investments.  The.  stimulant  force 
which  Christianity  has  imparted  t a large 
portion  of  the  Anglicans  would  create  plenty 
beyond  the  dreams  of  socialism  if  it  could 
reach,  inspire,  restrain  the  entire  population 
of  the  English-speaking  world. 


UNDERGROUND  RAILWAY  IN  LONDON. 

BY  A.  E.  DANIELL,  B.  A. 


THk>  vast  extent  of  London  and  the 
ever  increasing  nuinoer  of  persons 
of  all  classes  living  at  a distance 
from  the  scene  of  their  daily  work,  rendered 
it — some  five  and  twenty  years  ago — neces- 
sary to  supplement  l)y  a system  of  railways 
the  slow  and  inadecjuate  method  of  com- 
munication afforded  by  the  omnibuses,  which 
were  tiien  tlie  only  means  of  locomotion 
available  to  that  great  majority  of  Londoners 
ff;r  whom  the  exj)ense  of  constant  cab-hire 
is  ]jrohibitory. 

'I'he  idea  of  an  elevated  railway  would 
not  be  tolerated  in  I^ondon;  it  would  be 
considered  as  an  outrageous  disfigurement 


of  the  streets,  and  its  proximity  to  the 
housetops  would  be  denounced  as  an  un- 
warrantable violation  of  the  rights  of 
property.  Consequently,  the  promoters  of 
this  great  scheme  were  reduced  to  the 
necessity  of  tunneling  under  the  roadway, 
and  there  laying  their  lines. 

As  years  went  on  the  amount  of  public 
patronage  e.xtended  to  the  undertaking 
evoked  the  construction  of  numerous 
branches  connecting  the  suburbs  with  the 
metropolis,  and  so  quickly  do  the  various 
trains  now  succeed  each  other  in  the  more 
important  station.s,  that  it  requires  a cool 
head  and  a sharp  eye  on  the  part  of  the 


UNDERGROUND  RAILVVA  V JN  LONDON. 


traveler  to  avoid  stepping  into  a. wrong  one 
and  finding  himself  landed  two  or  three 
miles  from  his  destination. 

The  main  line  is  constructed  in  the  form 
of  a circle,  so  that  a person  may  enter  the 
train  at  one  of  the  city  stations,  and  having 
revolved  round  London,  return  by  a differ- 
ent route  to  his  original  starting  place. 
Oddly  enough,  this  ‘‘  Circle,”  which  seems 
quite  the  embodiment  of  harmony,  is  not 
the  property  of  a single  company.  It  is 
about  equally  divided  between  two  separate 
— and  in  fact  bitterly  antagonistic — com- 
panies, the  Metropolitan  Railway  Company 
and  the  District  Railway  Company,  which  are, 
however,  in  this  particular  instance,  com- 
pelled by  Parliament  to  sink  their  mutual 
animosities  and  work  together  for  the  benefit 
of  the  public.  Each  of  these  companies 
has  some  branch  lines,  but  the  Metropoli- 
tan— whether  by  better  fortune  or  better 
judgment — invariably  contrives  to  make  a 
much  larger  profit  out  of  its  business,  and 
and  is  accordingly  the  bete  iioire^  of  direct- 
ors and  liareholders  of  the  less  prosperous 
District. 

On  the  “Circle,”  the  trains  run  every  ten 
minutes  in  the  day  and  early  evening,  but 
later  on  they  are  restricted  to  every  twenty 
minutes.  The  number  of  trains  on  the 
branch  lines  varies,  regard  being  had  to  the 
respective  needs  of  the  different  suburbs. 
By  about  midnight  all  traffic  has  ceased, 
but  it  recommences  at  a very  early  hour  in 
the  morning,  when  trains  specially  provided 
for  workmen  may  be  seen  crowded  with  the 
sons  of  toil  eager  to  begin  the  labors  of  the 
day. 

In  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  when  suffi- 
cient vacant  ground  existed  to  allow  of  these 
lines’  being  constructed  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  this  mode  of  progression  is  not 
wholly  unpleasant,  but  it  is  far  otherwise 
in  those  central  districts,  including  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  “ Circle,”  where  the  line 
burrows  beneath  the  soil.  No  one,  who  has 
not  already  endured  it,  can  conceive  the 
miseries  which  the  unhappy  passenger  has 
to  bear. 

To  the  chiefly  negative  discomfort  of 
utter  darkness,  relieved  only  by  a lamp 


6S5 

of  the  feeblest  description,  generally  out  of 
order,  and  always  so  adjusted  that  its 
light  may  give  the  least  pos..ible  amount  of 
benefit,  is  added  the  indubitably  positive 
torment  of  an  atmosphere  of  almost  un- 
paralleled noisomeness.  The  air  is  densely 
charged  with  myriads  of  sooty  atoms  which 
settle,  like  swarming  bees,  on  the  face, 
hands,  and  garments  of  the  traveler.  His 
eyes  smart  and  water  with  the  sulphurous 
vapors  caused  by  insufficient  ventilation, 
while  his  throat  becomes  choked  with  the 
inky  particles  which  he  is  constrained  to 
swallow,  and  his  body  is  convulsed  by  the 
coughs  which  ever  and  anon  break  from 
him,  as  he  vainly  endeavors  to  dislodge  the 
abominable  mass  of  nastiness  which  op- 
presses his  lungs.  If  he  keeps  the  window 
closed,  the  foul  air  is  almost  suffocating ; 
if  he  opens  it,  he  is  at  once  exposed  to  a 
fresh  inroad  of  sulphurous  fumes  and  vola- 
tile dirt.  In  fact,  take  what  precautions  he 
may,  the  journey  is  not  conducive  to  his 
health,  his  personal  appearance,  or  his 
mental  happiness. 

Why,  then,  it  may  be  asked  do  so  many 
people  use  such  a noxious  method  of  loco- 
motion ? The  truth  is,  they  cannot  for  the 
most  part  help  it.  In  these  days  of  rush 
and  bustle,  people  must  get  to  and  fro  as 
quickly  as  they  can.  Everything  else  is  but 
a secondary  consideration.  The  multitude 
of  trains  and  abundance  of  stations  present 
advantages  which  overweigh  the  sensations 
of  comfort  and  cleanliness,  and  judges  and 
laborers,  merchants  and  counterjumpers, 
aged  men  and  callow  youths,  delicate 
women  and  children  of  tender  years,  are  all 
to  be  daily  seen  in  the  Cloaca  Maxima^  of 
the  modern  Babylon. 

The  stations  are  furnished  with  book 
stalls,  which  do  a brisk  trade  in  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  papers,  and  display  a 
variety  of  novels,  medical  compendiums, 
guidebooks,  and  political  pamphlets;  these 
works,  however,  are  far  less  in  demand  by 
passengers  than  the  “Star,”  and,  on  Satur- 
days, the  “Pink’un.”  It  is  sometimes  pos- 
sible to  obtain  a little  useful  information  by 
turning  over  the  leaves  of  a book  on  these 
stalls,  but,  as  the  custodian  will  probably 


656 


UNDEKGKOUA'I)  RAI/AVAY  IN  LONDOA. 


pester  you  to  buy  it  before  you  have  read  a 
dozen  lines,  this  manner  of  searching  after 
knowledge  is  precarious,  and  liable  to  un- 
timely interruption. 

The  automatic  craze  is  very  much  in 
vogue  at  these  stations.  You  can  weigh 
yourself  automatically,  take  your  own  height 
automatically,  obtain  sweets,  cigarettes, 
matches,  and  scent  automatically,  on 
depositing  a small  coin  (/.  e.,  one  penny)  of 
the  realm,  in  the  gaping  slot.  Refreshment 
bars  are  few  and  far  between,  being  attached 
to  only  the  most  important  stations,  and 
even  these  are  hardly  worthy  of  eulogy. 

The  advertiser  is  in  full  force.  Photog- 
raphers hang  over  the  benches  those 
curious  frames  in  which  three  startled  look- 
ing young  women,  an  expressionless  baby, 
a stern  bald-headed  gentleman,  and  a soldier 
in  full  uniform,  are  exhibited  as  specimens 
of  their  skill;  enterprising  bakers  affix  to 
the  walls  cases  containing  white  and  brown 
loaves,  with  testimonials  from  physicians  of 
eminence  proudly  inscribed  below ; haber- 
dashers stick  up  little  receptacles  in  odd 
corners,  wherein  they  stow  a shirt  and  two 
collars,  with  a legend  to  the  effect  that 
these  articles  of  apparel  present  a unique 
combination  of  fashion,  cheapness,  and 
durability.  But  the  great  bulk  of  the  ad- 
vertising is  done  by  means  of  boards  and 
tablets,  which  are  ranged  about  the  walls  in 
every  available  space.  Puffs  theatrical, 
puffs  journalistic,  and  the  ubiquitous  soaps 
and  pills,  are  massed  in  a dense  phalanx, 
while  that  awful  example  of  perverted 
ingenuity,  the  electric  sign,  performs  its  ex- 
asperating gymnastics. 

To  such  an  extent  is  this  system  of 
placards  carried  on  that  it  is  often  extremely 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  names  of  the 
stations  among  all  this  .superfluity  of  printed 
matter.  Not  long  ago  an  American  travel- 
ing on  the  “(hrcle,”  seeing  “Partington,” 
tJie  name  of  an  eminent  advertisement  con- 
tractor, ])ainted  in  enormous  letters,  con- 
cluded that  tliis  was  the  name  of  the 
station.  VVIien  lie  arrived  at  the  next  stop- 
ping ])lace,  he  again  observed  “ I’artington,” 
emblazoned  in  the  same  conspicuous  man- 
ner. 'This  somewhat  surprised  him,  but  he 


consoled  himself  with  the  thought  that 
there  must  be  two  divisions  of  the  “ Parting- 
ton” station;  so  he  continued  his  journey 
and  shortly  afterwards  arrived  at  “ Parting- 
ton ” the  third.  Unable  any  longer  to 
satisfy  himself  as  t(i  the  mysterious  recur- 
rence of  these  letters,  he  proceeded  to  make 
inquiries,  with  the  result  of  discovering 
that,  misled  by  this  Will  of  the  Wisp,  he 
had  gone  two  stations  beyond  the  place 
where  he  had  intended  to  alight. 

The  pertinacious  advertiser  does  not  stop 
at  overloading  the  walls  and  every  inch  of 
space  in  and  about  the  stations,  but  he  goes 
so  far  as  to  afford  the  companies  additional 
means  of  revenue  by  disfiguring  the  higher 
portions  of  the  carriages  with  small  tablets, 
which  constantly  appear  before  the  eyes  of 
the  martyred  traveler,  setting  forth  exagger- 
ated panegyrics  on  building  societies,  patent 
shoe  blackings,  quack  medicines,  and  other 
equally  unimportant  nostrums. 

The  carriages  on  the  trains  are  divided 
into  three  classes,  first,  second,  and  third. 
The  first-class  compartments  are  comfortably 
padded,  the  second  are  in  a sort  of  interme- 
diate state,  while  the  third  are  mere  boards. 
The  number  of  persons  that  can  be  seated 
in  each  compartment  is  ten — five  on  each 
side — but  in  the  third  class,  at  busy  times  of 
the  day,  as  many  as  six  people  often  squeeze 
in  on  each  side,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see, 
in  addition  to  these,  three  or  four  men  or 
lads  standing  in  the  narrow  gangway  be- 
tween the  seats.  A goodly  proportion  of 
this  crowd  are  frequently  loaded  with  bags 
of  tools,  unwieldy  packages,  bundles,  and 
tin  cans,  and  the  effect  on  a sultry  July 
evening  when  they  are  all  perspiring  freely, 
especially  in  a smoking-carriage,  enveloped 
in  clouds  of  the  rankest  “shag-tobacco” 
propelled  from  the  vilest  of  pipes,  can  be 
more  surely  conceived  than  described. 

The  carriages  are  not  provided,  except  in 
solitary  instances,  with  any  heating  appara- 
tus, and  when  they  are  so  furnished — which 
usually  occurs  in  the  first-class — a solitary 
warming-pan  about  three  feet  long  consti- 
tutes the  sole  calorific  agent  during  the 
.severe  fro.sty  weather. 

As  a rule  when  traveling  in  a “ Circle  ” 


UNDERGROUND  RAILWA  V IN  LONDON. 


657 


train  and  alighting  at  your  destination,  it  is 
found  necessary  to  climb  a steep  and  dusty 
staircase  of  about  twenty  or  perhaps  forty 
feet  from  the  landing  platform  before  reach- 
ing the  street. 

The  pretty  and  truly  picturesque  stations 
at  the  junctions  of  the  thoroughfares  on  the 
elevated  system,  in  New  York  City,  and  on 
the  suburban  lines  throughout  the  United 
States,  are  in  marked  contrast  to  the  shabby 
and  soot-covered  places  where  one  waits  for 
a train  in  London.  Huge  glass  domes  cover 
the  space  allotted  as  a depot,  underneath 
which  passengers  must  either  walk  or  stand 
upon  the  dreary  platforms  or  else  be  content 
by  occupying  a hard  circular  seat  arranged 
against  the  tomb-like  walls  of  the  “Under- 
ground.” 

Then  again  the  telegraph  offices  are  miss- 
ing at  these  stations.  A person  wishing  to 
despatch  a “wire”  cannot  do  so  at  the  rail- 
way ticket  offices,  this  monopoly  being  a 
separate  and  distinct  institution,  and  solely 
under  the  control  of  the  government.  Hence 
it  is  obligatory  to  send  all  electrical  commu- 
nications from  branch  post  offices. 

The  first-class  fares  are  about  double  those 
of  the  third-class;  the  second  about  half 
way  between  the  first  and  third.  Return 
tickets  can  be  purchased  at  the  rate  of  a 
fare  and  a half  for  the  double  journey,  and 
first-  and  second-class  season  tickets  can  be 
procured  at  advantageous  terms,  a privilege 
of  which  business  men  who  have  to  travel 
on  the  line  daily,  are  not  slow  to  avail  them- 
selves. There  is  a considerable  number  of 
unscrupulous  travelers  who,  after  taking 
third-class  tickets,  usurp  positions  in  the 
first-  and  second-class  carriages  to  which 
they  are  not  entitled.  These  interlopers 
are,  however,  sometimes  detected  by  zealous 
officials  who  occasionally  make  an  inspection 
of  tickets  en  route.,  and  then  their  confusion 
is  very  amusing  to  witness. 

Tickets  are  taken  by  a collector  standing 
in  a narrow  passage  or  angle,  which  must 
be  passed  in  order  to  go  out  of  the  station. 
He  is  so  placed  that  only  one  person  can 
get  by  him  at  a time.  It  is  thus  not  easy 
for  a person  without  a ticket  to  avoid  his 
vigilance.  I once,  however,  saw  a success- 


ful attempt  of  this  kind  made  on  a dark 
winter’s  night  at  the  Edgware  Road  station, 
which  is  situated  among  a network  of  small 
streets.  A man,  getting  ahead  of  the  crowd 
of  out-going  passengers,  rushed  violently 
up  the  stairs,  and,  dashing  past  the  aston- 
ished collector,  who  vainly  endeavored  to 
seize  him,  disappeared  in  the  adjacent  laby- 
rinth shrouded  by  the  most  unusual  gloom. 
The  collector  said  he  should  know  him  if 
he  saw  him  again ; but  whether  he  did  so  or 
not,  has  never  been  ascertained. 

Of  course,  when  there  are  so  many  stop- 
pages, the  amount  of  time  which  can  be 
spent  at  each  station  is  extremely  short,  and 
an  unpracticed  passenger  who  wanders  de- 
liberately along  the  platform,  eying  every 
carriage  with  care  so  as  to  select  the  most 
commodious,  will  probably  be  startled  by 
the  sudden  motion  of  the  train  and  run  a 
risk  of  being  left  behind.  This  is  often  the 
case  with  elderly  ladies,  who  sometimes 
scramble  with  outstretched  arms,  in  terrified 
haste,  into  a carriage  full  of  smokers,  while 
the  alert  guard  gives  them  a push  behind 
and  claps  the  door  upon  them  with  a tre-  ^ 
mendous  bang. 

The  polite  attention  passengers  receive 
on  the  American  lines  from  the  employees 
is  missing  here,  as  the  porters,  guards,  ticket- 
collectors,  and  booking-clerks  spare  no  time 
to  give  courteous  replies  to  any  inquiries,  or 
in  directing  passengers  how  to  find  their 
proper  trains ; but  if  a small  tip,  say  two- 
pence, is  handed  to  one  of  these  servants,  a 
ready  reply  will  be  vouchsafed  or  you  may 
be  conducted  either  to  the  right  platform  or 
even  guided  to  your  train  and  have  the  door 
of  the  compartment  shut  quietly  after  you. 

The  agility  of  the  guards — a fine  athletic 
set  of  men — is  very  noticeable.  They  give 
the  signal  for  departure  by  waving  a green 
flag,  shut  all  open  doors  with  a powerful 
turn  of  the  wrist  as  the  train  rolls  by  them, 
and  when  its  speed  has  become  considerably 
accelerated,  make  a dart  at  the  foot-board, 
and  clutching  the  door  swing  themselves 
into  their  vans  with  a precision  which  excites 
the  envy  and  admiration  of  spectators. 

The  enormous  strides  which  are  now  being 
made  in  electrical  science  may  prove  to  be 


Cri/STA  VUS  A/)()/JAn/S. 


658 

the  means  of  eventually  solving  the  ques- 
tion, how  to  establish  a speedy  method  of 
communication  throughout  London  without 
the  deleterious  atmosphere  engendered  by  the 
smoke  of  the  present  underground  railway. 

A small  electric  railway  lias  already  been 
constructed,  starting  from  the  city  and  go- 
ing under  the  'J'hames  to  the  southern 
bank  of  that  river,  whence  it  proceeds  to  the 
populous  suburbs  of  Kennington  and  Stock- 
well.  Access  is  obtained  to  the  platform  by 
means  of  lifts,  and  the  traveler  is  elevated 
to  the  surface  by  similar  agency  when  his 
journey  is  done.  Though  this  line  may  be 
regarded  chiefly  in  the  nature  of  an  experi- 
ment, it  is  certainly  very  popular  in 
the  districts  through  which  it  passes,  as 


may  be  seen  from  the  busy  throngs  wliich 
hurry  to  its  stations  to  make  use  of  the  facil- 
ities thus  afforded  for  getting  to  their  place 
of  work;  and  a much  greater  .sclieme  lia.s 
already  received  the  sanction  of  Tarliament 
— though  it  has  not  yet  been  actually  liegun 
— viz:  the  construction  of  an  electric  rail- 
way from  Shepherd’s  Hush,  a western  suburb 
of  the  metropoli.s,  which  would  run  under 
the  Uxbridge  Road,  Oxford  Street,  and  IIol- 
born  to  the  city,  where  it  would  form  a junc- 
tion with  the  line  already  existing.  This  is 
a great  idea,  and  it  would  extend  railway 
facilities  to  the  only  central  parts  of  London 
which  are  still  imperfectly  served.  All  Lon- 
doners trust  that  no  obstacle  may  arise  to 
prevent  its  speedy  execution. 


GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS. 

r.Y  MAX  LENZ. 

TRANSLATED  FOR  “ THE  CHAUTAUQUAN  ” FROM  THE  GERMAN  “ I'REUSSISCHE  JAHRBUCHER.” 


l^ROTESTANT  Christendom  is  now  pre- 
paring  to  celebrate  the  memory  of 
the  northern  hero  who,  in  the  dark- 
est days  of  Germany,  came  forward  in  the 
turmoil  of  most  bloody  battles,  as  the  re- 
deemer of  the  imperiled  adherents  of  the 
Lutheran  creed.  The  political  strife  of 
nearly  three  centuries  ago  has  died  away. 
The  German  nation,  no  longer  divided  and 
wavering,  stands  to-day  powerful  and  united, 
determined  to  ward  off  every  attack.  Long 
since  have  the  foreign  powers  who  fought 
out  their  fights  on  German  soil  and  took  pos- 
session of  our  territory  and  streams  departed, 
driven  away,  shaken  off,  and  Sweden  even 
among  the  first,  d’he  old  J)oundaries  have 
been  recovered  and  more  faithfully  fortified, 
and  alien  s|:>lendor  has  faded  before  the  light 
of  the  new  German  crown. 

Yet  the  religious  dissension  is  still  ])er- 
cejjtible.  'I’he  modern  followers  of  the  old 
fiiiti)  of  tlie  Middle  Ages  are  dis|)osed  to 
<le|>reciate  even  now  tlie  glory  of  the  great 
king,  because  of  his  hostility  to  their  cause 
at  llie  beginning  of  llie  seventeenth  century. 
It  seems  as  thougli  our  defenders  of  Rome 
and  the  j)ajial  ))olicy  had  gcme  too  far  to- 


wards the  justification  of  the  past.  Their 
complaints  are  directed  against  the  political 
views  which  were  bound  up  in  Gustavus 
Adolphus  with  the  zeal  of  his  religious  be- 
lief. From  the  heights  of  national  self-con- 
sciousness they  condemn  the  selfish  policy  of 
the  foreign  conqueror,  and  forget  in  their 
patriotic  agitation  that  the  historians  of  the 
new  school  are  bent  on  nothing  less  than 
to  justify  historically  the  aims  of  the  House 
of  Hapsburg  and  the  pope,  and  decry  the 
new  state  which  incorporates  German  Prot- 
estant ideals. 

There  has  scarcely  been  a period  in  German 
history,  w'hen  the  old  empire  attained  greater 
successes  and  came  nearer  to  the  restora- 
tion of  religious  unity  than  in  the  years 
when  Wallenstein  and  Tilly'  fought  their 
great  fights,  and  Emperor  Ferdinand  was 
preparing,  with  the  aid  of  the  League,^  to 
revoke  all  promises  and  treaties  the  German 
Protestants  had  wrung  from  his  family. 
When,  at  the  end  of  1627,  the  last  Danish 
garrisons  were  driven  out  of  Mecklenburg 
and  the  Cimbrian  peninsula,  it  seemed  all 
over  witli  German  heresy.  'Phe  imperial 
general  had  become  master  of  the  land  as  far 


247 


SIXTH  OEDINARY  GENERAL  MEETING. 

The  Sixth  Ordinary  General  Meeting  of  the  Session  was  held  at 
the  Whitehall  Rooms,  Hotel  Metropole,  on  Tuesday,  April  12,  1904, 
when  a Paper  on  “ The  Development  of  West  Africa  by  Railways 
was  read  by  Fred  Shelford,  Esq.,  B.Sc.  (Lond.),  M.Inst.C.E. 

His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  K.G.,  presided. 

The  Minutes  of  the  last  Ordinary  General  Meeting  were  read  and 
confirmed,  and  it  was  announced  that  since  that  Meeting  20  Fellows 
had  been  elected,  viz.  7 Resident  and  13  Non-Resident. 

Resident  Fellows : — 

Charles  Weldon  Adams,  Daniel  Finlayson,  F.L.S.,  Francis  Douglas  Fox, 
M.A.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Hugh  Spencer  Lynn,  His  Grace  the  Dnhe  of  Marlborough, 
K.G.,  Bernard  Oppe^iheimer,  John  S.  Bemington. 

Non-Resident  Fellows : — 

Hyman  Boodson  [Transvaal],  Godfrey  T.  Bradley,  M.I.Mech.E.  [Ceylon], 
Edward  L.  Brockman  [Straits  Settlements],  Donald  A.  Grant  [New  South 
Wcdes],  Edward  M.  Hixson,  C.E.  [Gold  Coast  Colony],  G.  Frederick  Hoy 
[Cape  Colony],  W.  G.  Hutchinson  [Transvaal],  Ernest  H.  Mitchell,  A.M.Inst.C.E. 
[Gold  Coast  Colony],  William  Murray  [Gold  Coast  Colony],  James  Feet, 
M.I.Mech.E.  [Trinidad],  Reginald  D.  Pontifex,  Er^iest  G.  Stevens,  C.E. 
[Sierra  Leone],  Charles  Tatham,  J.P.  [Natal]. 

It  was  also  announced  that  Donations  to  the  Library  of  books, 
maps,  &c.,  had  been  received  from  the  various  Governments  of  the 
Colonies  and  India,  Societies,  and  public  bodies  both  in  the  United 
Kingdom  and  the  Colonies,  and  from  Fellows  of  the  Institute  and 
others. 

The  Chaieman  : I have  much  pleasure  now  in  asking  Mr.  Shel- 
ford to  address  us.  He  is  ^well  known  to  many  of  you.  Mr. 
Shelford  is  connected  with  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Shelford  & Son,  who 
are  consulting  engineers  to  the  Crown  Agents  for  the  Colonies,  a 
distinguished  firm,  who  in  the  past  have  done  very  good  work  both 
for  the  Colonial  Office  and  for  others  in  this  country.  He  himself 
has  visited  many  of  the  territories  concerning  which  he  is  about  to 


//  ^ ^ 

Ordiuari/  General  MeetuKj. 

speak,  and  indeed  I believe  that  with  regard  to  railway  construction 
he  has  been  a pioneer  in  having  examined  the  country  and  the  land 
w ere  subsequently  tlie  railways  have  been  constructed.  Spealiin^ 
for  myself,  I come  here  as  a pupil,  as  one  who  is  anxious  to  learn 
all  he  can  from  the  information  the  lecturer  is  about  to  impart  to  us. 
Mr.  biiELFoiiD  then  read  his  paper  on 


THE  HEVELOrMENT  OF  WEST  jVFltlCA  V>Y  FiAIEWAVS. 

The  development  of  a country  largely  unexplored  and  still  little 
understood,  such  as  West  Africa,  in  the  Author’s  opinion  com- 
prises:— 

suppression  of  tribal  revolts  and  intertribal  warfare,  and 
he  abolition  of  slavery  and  other  barbarous  customs,  by  the  intro- 
duction of  an  enlightened  administration,  i.e.  pacification. 

2.  The  introduction  of  the  teachings  of  Christianity  in  place  of 
the  superstitions  and  cruelties  of  paganism,  i.e.  religion. 

^ 3.  The  establishment  of  the  importation  of  manufactured  goods 
in  exchange  for  the  exportation  of  the  natural  products  of  the 
country  or  those  obtained  by  cultivation  of  the  soil,  i.e.  trade. 

4.  The  location  and  working  of  mineral  ores,  affording  paid 
occupation  and  education  for  the  native  and  the  employment  of 
capital,  i.e.  industry. 

5.  The  instruction  of  the  native  in  skilled  labour,  arts,  science 
and  literature,  enabling  him  to  become  a useful  subject  of  the 
Empire,  i.e.  education. 

6.  The  geographical,  topographical,  geological,  zoological, 
botanical,  and  ethnological  study  of  the  country. 

These  results  are  brought  about  in  a greater  or  less  degree  by 
such  means  as  European  administration,  military  and  exploring 
expeditions,  the  efforts  of  missionaries,  mercantile  enterprise,  and 
mining  operations,  but  each  and  all  of  them  are  assisted  and  ex- 
pedited by  the  establishment  of  improved  means  of  communication, 
such  as  is  provided  by  the  construction  of  railways. 

In  the  Colony  of  Sierra  Leone  the  native  insurrection  in  1898 
was  accompanied  by  the  most  terrible  outrages  upon  the  Europeans 
within  the  affected  area,  and  unfortunately  found  the  Sierra  Leone 
Hallway  only  recently  begun  and  of  use  for  only  a short  distance 
for  the  conveyance  of  troops  ; but  at  the  present  time  with  the  rail- 
way in  working  order  from  Freetown,  the  capital,  through  Sono-o 
Town  (32  miles),  Hotifunk  (55  miles),  to  MattruandBo  (135  miles), 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  by  Bailway s.  249 

and  an  extension  from  Bo  to  Baiima  (222  miles  from  Freetown) 
rapidly  approaching  completion,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  any 
further  native  rising  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  railway  is  impro- 
bable, while  the  means  of  communication  now  afforded  by  the  rail- 
way would  lead  to  the  prompt  suppression  of  any  revolt  which  did 
occur,  since  troops  could  reach  the  infected  area  from  the  seat  of 
Government  in  a few  hours. 

Again,  in  the  case  of  the  Gold  Coast  the  numerous  wars  against 
the  Ashantis  in  1875,  1896,  and  lastly  in  1900,  each  of  which  has 
been  most  costly  to  the  Mother  Country  in  life  and  treasure,  are 
unlikely  to  occur  in  future  now  that  Kumasi  is  placed  within  six- 
teen days’  journey  from  England,  and  a few  hours’  journey  from  the 
coast. 

At  Lagos  fortunately  the  inhabitants  of  the  hinterland  are 
more  advanced  in  the  Imperial  scale  than  at  Sierra  Leone  and  the 
Gold  Coast,  and  the  railway  is  unlikely  to  be  called  into  use  for  the 
suppression  of  disturbances,  while  the  connection  by  railway  of 
Lagos  with  the  great  native  towns  of  Abeokuta  and  Ibadan  has 
only  to  serve  the  purpose  of  promoting  trade  between  those  im- 
portant centres. 

If  the  extraordinary  expenditures  upon  wars,  which  the  Colonies 
can  ill  afford,  *can  be  avoided  altogether  in  the  future,  and  at  the 
same  time  commercial  relations  be  strengthened  by  the  construction 
of  the  West  African  Railways,  they  will  be  of  lasting  benefit  to  the 
Colonies  that  own  them. 

Inter-tribal  wars,  with  the  attendant  feeling  of  insecurity  and 
reduction  of  the  population,  barbarous  customs — such  as  human 
sacrifices,  massacres  of  prisoners  of  war  or  of  slaves,  and  other 
inhuman  practices  due  to  the  influence  of  “ fetish  ” — are  bound  to 
give  way  before  the  advance  of  railways  and  the  increased  facility 
of  travel  afforded  to  officials  of  the  Administration. 

The  encouragement  to  trade  afforded  by  railway  construction  of 
course  requires  no  demonstration.  It  will  suffice  to  say  that  the 
natural  products  of  the  country — such  us  palm  oil,  kernels,  rubber, 
&c. — which  have  in  the  past  been  allowed  to  remain  untapped  for 
want  of  means  of  transport,  have  been  now,  and  will  be  still  more 
in  future,  brought  within  reach  of  the  merchants  on  the  Coast. 
What  is  desired  in  this  respect  is  for  the  West  African  trader  to  see 
his  way  to  further  efforts  to  secure  the  collection  and  sale  of  these 
valuable  products  by  the  establishment  of  subsidiary  stores  upon 
the  route  of  the  railway  for  the  exchange  of  native  produce  for 
European  manufactures. 


250  The  Development  of  West  Africa  hij  llailways. 

regard  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  the  construction  of 
railways  has  opened  up  very  large  tracts  of  country  suitable  for  the 
growth  of  almost  every  conceivable  tropical  product.  M uch  has  been 
recently  heard  of  Imperial-grown  cotton  for  the  use  of  the  Lanca- 
shire mills.  The  Author  can  only  point  to  the  large  tracts  of  land 
in  Sierra  Leone  and  at  Lagos,  many  ()f  which  are  suitable  for  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant,  now  opened  up  by  means  of  the  railways, 
and  waiting  for  properly-directed  efforts  to  turn  them  to  account. 
It  is  for  such  objects,  among  others,  that  the  Governments  of  the 
West  African  Colonies  have  undertaken  the  responsibilities  of  rail- 
way construction. 

The  prospecting  of  the  country  for  mineral  ores  is,  of  course, 
facilitated  by  railways  permitting  a wider  range  of  operations. 

With  regard  to  the  actual  working  of  mines,  gold  is  the 
mineral  which  has  first  attracted  attention  in  West  Africa  as 
elsewhere. 

Gold  mining  is  an  industry  which  has  necessarily  to  deal  with  large 
quantities  of  quartz  requiring  pulverisation  to  a high  degree  of  fine- 
ness, and  for  this  purpose  stamps  or  rolls  of  great  weight  must  be 
employed.  Stamps  weighing  from  750  lbs.  to  1,100  lbs.,  or  even 
more,  can  only  be  subdivided  into  two  or  three  sections,  and  a 
battery  of  any  considerable  output  may  require  from  20  to  100  or 
more  of  such  stamps. 

Sectionalisation  of  mining  machinery  has  sometimes  been  adopted 
under  stress  of  circumstances  'where  no  transport  facilities  existed, 
but  all  mining  engineers  are  agreed  that  it  is  essentially  unsatis- 
factory on  account  of  the  loss  of  sections  in  transit,  and  the  inability 
of  sectionalised  machinery  to  withstand  the  vibrations  to  which  it 
is  subjected. 

The  transport  of  heavy  pieces  of  machinery,  anything  in  fact  over 
one  or  two  cwt.,  for  any  long  distance,  or  anything  over  half  a ton 
for  the  shortest  distance,  is  a practical  impossibility  in  a country 
such  as  the  Gold  Coast,  where  the  rivers  are  not  navigable  and 
roads  exist  only  in  name.  This  is  conclusively  proved  by  the  past 
history  of  gold  mining  on  the  Gold  Coast.  The  gold  miner  must 
therefore  either  sectionalise  his  machinery  with  the  consequent 
sacrifice  of  efficiency,  or  be  must  be  provided  with  means  of  trans- 
port. 

The  Gold  Coast  Eailway  delivers  loads  of  any  weight  at  Tarkwa, 
one  centre  of  the  gold-mining  industry,  in  a few  hours,  while  it 
delivers  at  Obuassi,  the  headquarters  of  the  Ashanti  Goldfields 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  hy  Baihvays.  251 

Corporation,  machinery  such  as  could  otherwise  not  be  employed 
there. 

Other  mining  industries  than  gold  mining  are  undeveloped  in 
West  Africa.  Unfortunately,  so  far  coal  has  not  been  found, 
although  the  condition  of  the  forest  belt  of  West  Africa  seems  to  be 
very  similar  to  that  existing  in  Europe  during  the  carboniferous 
period.  Gigantic  trees,  innumerable  smaller  trees,  and  dense  under- 
growth quickly  grows  and  falls  to  the  ground  to  rot,  forming  a deep 
layer  of  decaying  vegetation,  which  one  can  well  imagine  may  form 
a carboniferous  stratum  in  future  ages.  It  is  a question,  however, 
whether  the  conditions  of  damp  and  heat  and  the  presence  of  white 
ants  and  other  insects  may  not  be  destroying  the  timber  before  it 
becomes  permanently  imbedded.  This,  however,  is  merely  a matter 
of  academic  interest  to  the  present  age. 

The  education  of  the  native  in  the  practical  arts  and  crafts  is  a 
most  important  effect  of  the  introduction  of  the  iron  horse,  although 
railways  share  this  influence  with  mining  operations  and  other 
industries.  The  native  if  left  to  himself  will  learn  nothing  and 
will  aspire  to  nothing  but  the  simple  husbandry  of  his  forefathers, 
which  supplies  him  with  his  food  and  a small  surplus  of  products 
for  exchange  for  clothing,  gun  and  gunpowder.  But  when  railway 
construction  is  begun  he  is  called  upon  to  assist  in  surveying, 
clearing  of  forest  upon  a large  scale,  excavation  of  cuttings  in  earth, 
and  blasting  of  cuttings  in  rock,  building  of  embankments,  excava- 
tion of  bridge  foundations,  construction  of  masonry  or  concrete 
bridges,  and  erection  of  steelwork,  erection  of  station  buildings, 
workshops,  quarters  and  telegraph,  laying  of  permanent  way  and 
ballast,  each  of  which,  together  with  many  other  branches  of  the 
work,  must  educate  him  and  advance  him  in  the  scale  of  civilisa- 
tion. 

But  the  railway  when  constructed  has  still  to  be  worked,  and 
this  again  demands  for  the  native  the  duties  of  maintenance  and 
repair  of  road,  bridges,  stations  and  rolling  stock,  while  from  the 
ranks  of  the  natives  have  to  be  enrolled  station  masters,  drivers, 
firemen,  fitters,  blacksmiths,  guards,  porters,  shunters,  and  pointsmen ; 
while  both  during  construction  and  during  working  a small  army 
of  timekeepers,  bookkeepers,  clerks,  typewriters,  and  accountants 
has  to  be  enlisted  from  the  native  races  to  avoid  the  expense  of 
excessive  European  skilled  labour. 

The  different  native  tribes  show  varying  adaptability  to  the  new 
duties  demanded  of  them.  Considering  the  absence  of  any  real 
necessity  for  continuous  wage-earning  employment  the  natives 


^^52  The  Development  of  West  Africa  by  Dailways. 

have  taken  fairly  well  to  the  work,  but  there  is  plenty  of  room  for 
improvement.  There  is  no  reason  why  in  time  the  West  African 
native  should  not  attain  the  same  degree  of  proficiency  as  the  I'iast 
or  West  Indian. 

Improved  knowledge  of  the  geography  and  topography  of  West 
Africa  has  naturally  followed  as  a result  of  the  numerous  surveys 
carried  out  to  determine  the  route  for  each  railway.  Some  ToO  miles 
of  surveys  have  been  carried  out  in  Sierra  Leone  alone  in  connection 
with  the  railway,  and  a large  number  of  names  of  new  towns  and 
villages  have  been  added  to  the  map  of  the  Colony.  At  Lagos  also 
numerous  surveys  have  been  made  and  the  topographical  know- 
ledge of  the  country  has  been  improved,  while  upon  the  Gold  Coast 
the  railway  runs  from  Sekondi  to  Kumasi  through  country  pre- 
viously quite  unknown.  The  Author’s  own  expedition  between  the 
two  places  in  1899  and  the  numerous  prospecting  expeditions  sent 
out  in  1900  and  1901  have,  it  is  hoped,  contributed  to  the 
geographical  knowledge  of  this  part  of  the  Gold  Coast. 

The  construction  of  railways  facilitates  the  study  of  the  geology 
and  botany  of  a country  by  affording  continuous  though  shallow 
sections  difficult  to  obtain  otherwise,  while  the  use  of  native  timber 
brings  to  light  unknown  trees  of  commercial  value.  Each,  however, 
of  these  services  requires  systematic  application  by  itself,  and  it  is 
difficult  for  railway  construction  staffs  to  do  more  than  take  advan- 
tage of  any  discoveries  of  practical  value  that  they  may  happen  to 
make.  Thus  the  position  of  a deposit  of  river  gravels  is  quickly 
noted  for  use  for  concrete  or  ballast,  while  valuable  timbers  are 
found  and  employed  in  the  construction  of  temporary  bridges  and 
other  works. 

There  is  no  reason  why  the  West  African  timbers  should  not  be 
employed  for  sleepers,  buildings,  and  bridges  in  West  Africa  as 
elsewhere,  but  the  engineer  cannot  employ  them  upon  a large  scale 
until  their  identity  and  properties  are  known. 

SiEEEA  Leone  Goveenment  Railway. 

A description  of  this  railway  accompanied  by  numerous  lantern 
slides  will  be  given  by  the  Author,  so  that  only  a few  brief  particulars 
are  required  in  this  Paper. 

The  railway  is  of  2 ft.  G in.  gauge,  with  rails  weighing  30  lbs. 
per  yard  and  steel  sleepers.  The  maximum  gradient  is  1 in  60 
with  a minimum  curvature  of  5 chains.  The  line  has  been  built 
section  by  section  and  not  as  one  undertaking. 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  by  Bailways. 


253 


The  route  of  the  railway  is  shown  upon  the  maps  on  the  wall ; 
leaving  Freetown  it  passes  through  Hastings,  Waterloo,  Songo 
Town  (32  miles),  Rotifunk  (55  miles),  Mano,  Mattru,  Bo  (135 
miles)  and  reaches  Baiima,  222  miles  from  Freetown.  The  section 
from  Freetown  to  Songo  Town  includes  11  large  viaducts.  From 
Songo  Town  to  Rotifunk  there  is  one  bridge  of  importance.  The 
rest  of  the  line  consists  of  undulating  country  crossed  by  rivers  of 
some  size  requiring  several  large  bridges. 

The  following  are  the  principal  works  upon  the  Sierra  Leone 
Government  Railway  so  far  constructed  : — 


Works  of  interest 

Mileage 

! 

No.  of  spans 

Total  length 

Freetown  to  Songo  Town  : 
Nicliol  Brook 

J 

Miles 

0 

Chains 

78 

9 

Feet 

281 

Kissey  ,, 

4 

75 

6 

280 

Wellington  Brook 

7 

40 

7 

312 

Calaba  . 

7 

77 

5 

158 

Kobiss  „ . 

8 

16 

4 

162 

Orogou  Viaduct  . 

11 

65 

6 

386 

Maroon  „ 

12 

78 

7 

330 

Hastings  „ 

13 

50 

7 

294 

Kokell 

16 

15 

3 

94 

Gaddon  „ 

16 

65 

3 

94 

Lewis  „ 

17 

14 

4 

126 

Allamangey  Viaduct  . 

18 

24 

5 

182 

Songo  Town  to  Baiima  : 
Eibbi  Bridge 

38 

65 

9 

! 662 

Bumpe  „ 

55 

40 

2 

63 

Mongire  „ 

61 

60 

2 

63 

Makora  ,,  • . 

68 

12 

2 

63 

Yambutu  Bridge  . 

76 

50 

3 

158 

Bangue  „ 

79 

0 

3 

232 

Taia  „ 

106 

43 

10 

589 

Tabe 

118 

40 

4 ’ 

233 

Bebeye  ,, 

148 

15 

5 

262 

Sewa  „ 

160 

50 

6 i 

718 

Male  ,, 

175 

48 

^ 1 

233 

SiEEKA  Leone  Mountain  Railway. 

Views  will  also  be  shown  of  this  work,  which  was  opened  on 
March  1, 1904.  This  railway  is  of  the  same  gauge  as  the  main  line  of 
the  Colony,  but  the  gradient  is  as  steep  as  1 in  22,  and  the  curva- 
ture through  the  streets  of  Freetown  necessitates  curves  as  sharp 
as  2 chains  radius. 


254  The  Development  of  West  Africa  hi/  llailways. 

The  railway  is  built  for  the  purpose  of  airordin*^  comiuuuication 
between  the  Government  buildings  in  l^Veetown  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill  and  the  new  cantonment,  consisting  of  residences  for  officials 
and  others,  situated  on  a plateau  about  eleven  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea,  where  the  conditions  of  life  will  he  far  more  healthy  than 
in  the  town  itself.  Tt  is  hoped  that  the  facilities  afforded  by  this 
mountain  railway  will  contribute  largely  to  the  improved  health  of 
the  Colony,  as  the  new  cantonment  will  alYord  most  extensive  views 
both  over  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  over  the  interior  of  the  country 
for  many  miles,  and  will  be  fully  exposed  to  the  healthy  sea 
breezes. 

Lagos  Government  Railway. 

Views  of  this  railway  will  be  shown,  and  a few  particulars  only 
need  be  included  in  the  Paper. 

The  gauge  of  the  Lagos  Government  Jtailway  is  3 ft.  0 in.,  rails 
50  lbs.  per  yard,  gradients  1 in  50  with  10  chain  curves.  The  line 
was  constructed  in  sections  and  not  as  a whole. 

The  established  communication  between  Lagos  Island  and  the 
interior  is  now  as  follows  : Leaving  Lagos  Town,  with  a population 
of  some  42,000  people,  one  crosses  the  lagoon  by  the  Carter  Bridge 
2,600  feet  in  length,  and  reaches  the  terminus  of  the  railway,  which  is 
situated  on  the  island  of  Iddo  ; thence  the  railway  crosses  the  lagoon 
by  the  Denton  Bridge  900  ft.  in  length,  and  reaches  the  mainland 
at  Ebute  Metta,  where  the  workshops,  quarters,  engine-sheds,  &c.,  are 
situated.  It  then  runs  up  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Ogun  River,  passing 
the  village  of  Otta  at  20  miles,  and  numerous  other  villages  of  vary- 
ing importance  till  Aro  is  reached  at  64  miles,  whence  a branch  line, 
about  1|  miles  long,  crosses  the  Ogun  River  and  reaches  Abeokuta. 

Abeokuta  (“the  City  under  the  Rock”)  is  generally  believed  to 
have  a population  of  nearly  100,000  people,  and  is  enclosed  by  a 
wall  about  15  to  20  miles  in  circumference.  The  branch  line 
crosses  the  Ogun  River  by  a bridge  of  three  spans  of  100  ft.  and 
three  spans  of  60  ft.  and  a total  length  of  500  ft.  The  Main  Line 
does  not  cross  the  Ogun  River,  but  continues  up  its  right  bank  and 
crosses  at  Lokomeji,  finally  reaching  Ibadan  125  miles  from  Lagos, 
where  the  terminus  at  present  remains. 

Ibadan  is  a town  of  very  considerable  importance  credited  with  a 
population  of  180,000  people,  with  a considerable  trade  of  its  own. 

The  extension  of  the  Lagos  Railway  beyond  Ibadan  is  under 
consideration,  and  surveys  have  been  made  in  anticipation  of  its 
eventual  extension. 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  hy  Baikvays. 


255 


Gold  Coast  (Takkwa)  Railway. 

During  a visit  in  1896  of  Sir  William  Maxwell,  then  Governor  of 
the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  to  the  Tarkwa  district,  the  practical  im- 
possibility of  working  the  gold  mines  of  the  banket  formation 
without  railway  communication  with  the  coast  was  demonstrated. 

A survey  was  made  in  1897,'’with  the  result  that  the  construction 
of  a railway  from  Sekondi  to  Tarkwa  was  commenced  early  in  1898, 
but,  owing  to  objections  being  raised  with  regard  to  the  selection  of 
Sekondi  as  a port,  work  had  to  be  suspended  until  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Colonies,  in  July  1898,  held  a conference  at  the 
Colonial  Office  which  resulted  in  the  confirmation  of  the  original 
route  recommended.  Work  was  recommenced  in  August  1898,  but 
was  much  impeded  by  the  scarcity  of  labour,  the  population  of  the 
locality  being  sparse  andffiot  taking  to  the  new  work. 

The  supply  of  labour^remained  for  some  time  quite  inadequate, 
but  the  Government  of  the^Colony  expressed  a wish  that  labourers 
should  not  be  imported,  as  they  desired  that  the  natives  of  the 
country  should  be  given  every  opportunity  of  learning  the  work. 
Moreover,  on  account  of  ^the  short  length  of  the  line  to  Tarkwa,  it 
was  impracticable  to  organise  the  importation  of  labour  on  a large 
scale. 

The  wet  season  of  1899  was  abnormal,  and  very  large  quantities 
of  rain  fell,  practically  suspending  the  work,  and  many  of  the  staff 
became  sick,  but  in  the  dry  season  of  1899-1900  the  work  was  again 
pushed  forward  as  well  as  the  inadequate  supply  of  labour  would 
allow. 

At  the  beginning  of  1900,  in  consequence  of  the  possibility  of  the 
extension  of  the  railway  to  Kumasi  being  undertaken,  it  became 
obvious  that  labour  must  be  imported  from  other  countries,  and 
steps  were  taken  to  recruit  it. 

After  a great  deal  of  difficulty  a supply  of  labour  from  Lagos 
was  arranged  for,  but  unfortunately  the  Ashanti  war  broke  out  in 
April  1900,  putting  a stop  to  all  further  importation  of  outside 
labour  and  taking  away  the  natives  already  engaged  upon  the  work 
to  act  as  carriers  for  the  troops. 

The  Ashanti  war  broke  up  the  survey  parties  sent  out  to  make 
a preliminary  survey  of  the  Kumasi  Extension,  frightened  the 
labourers  on  the  more  advanced  works,  and  generally  caused  serious 
disorganisation. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  Ashanti  war  work  was  again  pushed 
forward,  and  the  railway  reached  Tarkw^a  in  May  1901. 


The  Development  of  Went  A frica  hjj  JUiiltvajfs. 


25() 


The  actual  period  occupied  in  tlie  construction  was  from  'July 
1898  to  ^lay  1901,  or  thirty-four  months,  during  which  a l)as(3 
with  landing-jetties,  quarters,  workshops,  running- sheds,  dc.,  was 
established  at  Sekondi,  a place  formerly  consisting  of  a few  mud 
huts  and  with  no  accommodation  whatever.  This  work  was  cjirried 
out  in  the  face  of  three  wet  seasons,  a prolonged  scarcity  of  labour, 
and  eventually  the  last  Ashanti  war. 


T A U K W A - K U M A S I ] X 'r  E N S I O N . 

In  1899  it  was  decided  that  an  examination  of  the  country 
between  Tarkwa  and  Kumasi  should  be  made  with  a view  of 
deciding  whether  Kumasi  should  be  approached  by  railway  from 
Accra,  as  proposed  by  Sir  William  IMaxwell,  or  by  an  extension  of 
the  Tarkwa  Railway. 

In  1899  a comparison  of  these  two  routes  was  made  by  the 
Author,  and  as  a result  of  his  report  the  Tarkwa-Kumasi  Extension 
line,  through  unknown  swampy  and  forest-clad  country,  was  begun 
in  June  1901,  the  rails  reaching  Obuassi  December  20,  1902,  and 
Kumasi  in  September  last. 

The  time  occupied  in  reaching  Obuassi  was  18  months  in  all, 
during  which  86  miles  of  line,  comprising  very  heavy  clearing  and 
earthworks,  were  constructed  at  an  average  rate  of  4|  miles  per 
month. 


Natural  Difficulties  of  Construction. 

The  difficulties  encountered  in  constructing  the  West  African 
Railways  have  been  very  numerous  and  peculiar  to  the  country. 
They  may  be  briefly  stated  under  the  following  heads  : — 

(a)  Climate. — The  unhealthiness  of  the 'climate  of  West  Africa 
is  notorious  and  greatly  interferes  with  continuity  of  organisation 
in  carrying  out  extensive  works.  In  order  to  provide  against  the 
disastrous  effect  of  climate  upon  the  railway  officials,  who  are 
specially  exposed  to  the  weather,  both  heat  and  rain  at  all  hours  of 
the  day,  an  eight  months’  service  was  in  all  cases  instituted,  carrying 
with  it  four  months’  absence  on  leave  from' the  Colony  on  half- pay. 
Proposals  have  been  made  to  extend  the  period  of  service,  hut  this 
has  so  far  been  deemed  inadvisable. 

Elaborate  medical  arrangements  have  been  organised  upon  each 
railway.  At  Sierra  Leone  there  has  always  been  a medical  staff 
maintained  by  the  Railway  Department,  the  Colonial  Hospital  being 


The  Developnent  of  West  Africa  by  Baihuays.  257 

available.  At  Lagos  the  medical  staff  was  very  fully  equipped.  A 
small  railway  hospital  was  constructed,  and  the  Colonial  Hospital 
has  been  available  as  well.  On  the  Gold  Coast,  owing  to  the 
complete  isolation  of  the  works,  a large  hospital  has  been  erected  at 
Sekondi,  and  another  at  Obuassi.  The  medical  staff  has  always 
been  kept  at  full  strength,  and  fully  equipped  with  all  medical 
appliances,  instruments,  and  medicines. 

All  the  railway  officials  have  been  kept  fully  informed  by 
pamphlets,  books,  &c.,  of  the  development  of  the  Malaria  Mosquito 
theory  since  it  was  first  discovered,  and  detailed  instructions  as  to 
site  of  camps,  clothes  to  be  worn,  food  and  drink,  have  been  issued 
to  every  employee. 

In  spite  of  these  precautions  the  effect  of  the  climate  upon  the 
staff  is  best  shown  by  the  changes  that  have  occurred  in  the  position 
of  Chief  Resident  Engineer,  Chief  Accountant,  and  Chief  Store- 
keeper at  Lagos,  and  in  the  position  of  Chief  Resident  Engineer 
at  Sierra  Leone  and  Gold  Coast,  a list  of  which  is  given  in  full 
detail  in  the  Appendix. 

The  detailed  health  statistics  of  each  railway  could  be  given  in 
full,  but  the  particulars  of  these  five  appointments  are  perhaps 
sufficient  to  emphasise  the  point. 

It  has  been  found  that  men  of  superior  education  occupying  the 
higher  appointments  upon  the  railways  keep  their  health  better 
than  those  in  the  lower  grades,  hence  some  idea  may  be  formed, 
from  a perusal  of  these  lists,  of  the  great  number  of  changes  which 
have  taken  place  amongst  the  entire  staff  of  each  railway. 

The  following  table,  showing  the  total  numbers  of  European 
engineers  and  others  employed  on  each  railway,  may  be  of 
interest : — 


— 

1 

Total  Xumber 
of  individual 
Europeans 
employed  on 
each  railway 
to  end  of  1 903. 

Total  Number 
of  Europeans 
sent  to  each 
railway,  i.e., 
total  number 
of  “ tours  ” of 
service  to  end 
of  1903 

Remarks 

Sierra  Leone  Government  Railway 

239 

400 

Still  in  progress 

Lagos  Government  Railway  . 

219 

333 

Completed 

Gold  Coast  Government  Railway  . 

388 

635 

Completed 

The  effect  of  these  constant  changes  upon  the  continuity  of 
administration  of  each  railway  can  be  readily  imagined,  but  this 

s 


258  The  iJevelojnnent  of  West  Africa  hij  llailwaijs. 

cannot  by  any  possibility  be  avoided  in  a climate  such  as  that  of 
West  Africa. 

(b)  The  Wet  Seasons. — At  the  comiiienconient  of  operations  in 
West  Africa  it  was  expected  that  all  active  work  would  have  to  be 
suspended  during  the  wet  seasons,  but  this  has  not  proved  to  be 
necessary.  Surveys,  indeed,  have  been  completely  stopped  during 
the  rains,  but  construction  work  has  heen  carried  on  during  the  wet 
seasons,  though  of  course  always  under  great  dil’Iiculties.  M’hc  execu- 
tion of  an  enormous  quantity  of  earthwork  upon  the  (lold  (k)ast 
Jhiilway  during  the  wot  season  of  1hf)2  was  absolutely  imperative 
in  the  case  of  a line  telescopically  constructed,  but  it  is  unsatis- 
factory from  an  engineering  point  of  view. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  heavy  rainfall  in  the  West  African 
Colonies,  the  actual  fall  for  the  year  1001  is  given  below,  the 
greater  part  of  this  falling  in  the  months  of  June,  July,  September, 
and  October  : — 

Sierra  Leone  rainfall,  1901 175-48  in. 

Ijagos  rainfall,  1901  112-59  in. 

Gold  Coast  (Tarkwa)  rainfall,  1901.  . . . 92-55  in. 

In  some  cases  tropical  showers  have  fallen  to  the  amount  of  4 to 
5 inches  at  a time,  and  upon  the  Gold  Coast  in  June  1001  no  less 
than  30  inches  (2  ft.  6 in.)  of  rain  fell  in  the  month,  an  amount 
equal  to  the  average  total  rainfall  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  one 
year. 

(c)  Quality  of  Labour. — In  the  case  of  each  Colony  the  railway 
works  have  been  carried  on  by  means  of  West  African  native 
labour,  the  actual  native  of  the  district  being  employed,  except  upon 
the  Gold  Coast  Eailway,  where  natives  of  other  parts  were 
imported.  The  West  African  is  unaccustomed  to  any  but  his  own 
agricultural  employment,  and  is  naturally  devoid  of  all  skill  and 
education,  and  possesses  little  energy.  In  course  of  time,  however, 
the  natives  in  each  Colony  have  been  educated  by  the  Railway 
Department  to  take  up  the  duties  of  station  masters,  porters, 
platelayers,  mechanics,  fitters,  &c.  ; in  Sierra  Leone  and  Lagos 
with  considerable  success,  the  Mendis,  Timinis,  Egbas,  and 
Yorubas  having  a certain  amount  of  aptitude  for  the  work  Upon 
the  Gold  Coast  the  Fantis  and  other  tribes  are  somewhat  more 
slow  to  develop  the  required  talent, 

(d)  Scarcity  of  Labour. — In  Sierra  Leone  and  Lagos  this  did 
not  occur  except  when  the  military  operations  took  away  the 


The  Develoiwient  of  West  Afriea  by  Eaihvays.  259 

railway  labour  as  carriers  for  the  troops,  there  having  always  been 
sufficient  labour  of  a kind.  This  is  due  to  the  large  populations 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  railway.  On  the  Gold  Coast  Railway, 
however,  the  scarcity  of  labour  was  a very  serious  matter,  the 
supply  falling  at  one  time  as  low  as  about  600  men,  a number 
perfectly  inadequate  for  progress.  The  number  of  natives  employed 
at  various  dates  has  been  as  follows  : — 


- 

August 
189!)  I 

Juno 

1902  , 

Jiinuary 

1903 

1 

January 

1904 

Sierra  Leone  Eailway 

1,0BB 

to 

CO 

3,281 

3,571 

Lagos  Eailway  . 

1 10,420 

Completed 

Gold  Coast  Eailway  . 

i 2,714 

16,000 

12,417 

2,502 

Total  .... 

i 14,203 

; 20,685 

15,698 

6,073 

(e)  Difficulties  of  Landing  Cargo.  -Over-carriage  of  materials, 
damage  to  the  same,  and  the  wreck  of  ships  carrying  large  con- 
signments have  added  greatly  to  the  difficulty  of  providing  the 
materials  in  proper  time  and  order,  especially  as  it  has  only  been 
possible  to  ship  small  quantities  in  each  steamer  in  order  not  to 
congest  the  wharves  and  piers  available. 

At  Sierra  Leone  the  Wharf  accommodation  is  extremely  limited, 
though  the  landing  facilities  are  otherwise  good. 

At  Lagos  it  has  been  necessary  to  tranship  all  cargo  at  Forcadcs, 
some  150  miles  beyond  Lagos,  into  branch  boats  which  can  cross  the 
Lagos  Bar. 

On  the  Gold  Coast  (Sekondi)  all  materials  have  had  to  be 
discharged  into  surf  boats  and  lighters  in  the  open  roadstead.  The 
lighterage  is  in  charge  of  Messrs.  Elder,  Dempster  & Co.,  and  small 
consignments  have  been  necessary  to  prevent  delay  to  the  steamers 
or  congestion  of  the  lighterage  plant. 

(f)  Scarcity  of  Ballast. — This  difficulty  has  perhaps  been  the 
greatest  of  all.  At  Sierra  Leone  ballast  has  been  fairly  plentiful, 
and  the  difficulty  has  not  been  formidable.  At  Lagos,  however, 
there  is  a complete  absence  of  hard  stone  of  any  kind  for  nearly 
60  miles  from  the  coast,  and  it  was  necessary  to  open  the  railway 
for  this  length  very 'partially  ballasted,  and  to  allow  the  maintenance 
gangs  to  complete  the  work  gradually.  Upon  the  Gold  Coast  hard 
rock  exists,  but  as  a rule  only  at  a depth  of  50  to  100  feet  from  the 


200 


The  DcvcJopmenI  of  West  Africa  hji  llailwaijs. 


surface,  and  this  has  rendered  the  extraction  of  about  500,000  tons 
of  stone  required  for  the  railway  practically  impossible  from  such 
quarries.  It  was  necessary  to  adopt  the  expedient  of  searching  for 
surface  stones  and  boulders  in  the  hush,  and  to  bring  them  to  the 
line  to  be  broken  up  and  distributed.  This  was  a very  laborious 
and  costly  work,  hut  had  to  he  carried  out  on  account  of  the  soft 
clayey  nature  of  the  soil  on  the  Ciold  Coast  which  has  rendered 
ballasting  imperative. 


Extraordinary  Interference  with  Construction. 

Bes'des  the  natural  difficulties  which  have  been  encountered  as 
outlined  above,  the  construction  of  railways  in  West  Africa  has  been 
unfortunately  interrupted  by  disturbances  amongst  the  natives  and 
military  operations  in  the  case  of  each  Colony. 


Sierra  Leone. 


In  the  case  of  the  Sierra  Leone  Uailway  a native  insurrection 
broke  out  in  February  1898,  and  had  the  effect  of  stopping  the 
works  and  disorganising  the  staff  for  some  time.  The  rebels 
descended  upon  the  railway  and  drove  into  Freetown  the  entire 
staff,  and  dissipated  the  whole  of  the  native  labour,  causing  a 
condition  of  panic,  which  continued  for  some  time  during  which  the 
railway  and  its  plant  were  left  at  the  mercy  of  the  rebels.  Luring 
the  whole  of  1898  and  until  April  1899  the  requirements  of  the 
native  troops  sent  up  country  to  quell  the  disturbance,  and  of  the 
troops  sent  to  the  Colony  as  a punitive  expedition,  took  away  a very 
large  number  of  the  labourers  engaged  upon  the  railway  to  act  as 
carriers  to  these  expeditions.  The  result  of  this  disturbance  was  to 
detain  the  rail-head  at  Songo  Town,  the  end  of  the  first  section, 
although  authority  had  been  received  for  the  next  section  to 
Rotifunk.  Upon  the  termination  of  this  disturbance  in  April  1899 
the  Songo  Town  to  Rotifunk  section  was  completed  in  about  eight 
months. 

Lagos. 

At  Lagos  the  disturbance  was  not  due  to  the  natives,  but  at  the 
latter  end  of  1897  and  the  early  part  of  1898  the  operations  of  the 
French  in  the  Hinterland  required  the  urgent  despatch  of  troops  up 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  hy  Baihvays, 


261 


country,  and  for  thia  purpose  almost  all  of  the  railway  labourers, 
and  some  of  its  officers,  were  taken  by  the  Government  to  act  as 
carriers  to  the  military  expeditions.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
military  operations  work  was  recommenced  in  October  1898,  and  the 
rails  advanced  from  30  miles  to  64  miles  (Abeokuta)  in  seven 
months,  or  at  the  rate  of  5 miles  per  month,  and  from  Abeokuta  to 
Ibadan,  at  125  miles,  in  twenty  months  more. 


Gold  Coast. 

On  the  Gold  Coast  the  special  disturbance  was  the  Ashanti 
War,  which  broke  out  in  April  1900,  and  continued  until  the  end 
of  that  year.  The  effect  on  the  labour  has  been  referred  to  above, 
and  may  be  briefly  described  as  putting  an  end  to  the  importation 
of  labour  into  the  Colony  from  other  parts  of  West  Africa,  which 
after  a great  deal  of  trouble  had  been  eventually  organised.  At  the 
conclusion  of  the  Ashanti  War,  rail-head  advanced  from  25  miles 
to  126  miles  in  twenty-two  months,  equal  to  a rate  of  4|  miles  per 
month. 


Rate  of  Construction. 

The  rate  at  which  the  West  African  Railways  have  been  con- 
structed will  be  shown  graphically  by  a lantern  slide,  and  compared 
with  that  of  French  and  Belgian  railways  in  West  Africa. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  these  railways  have  not  been  con- 
structed as  a whole,  but  tentatively,  section  by  section,  an  interval 
frequently  occurring  between  the  completion  of  one  se^Iion  and 
the  authorisation  of  the  next,  and  in  all  cases  the  authorisation  of 
the  work  by  sections  has  prevented  an  organisation  suitable  for  the 
rapid  construction  of  the  whole.  This  cautious  policy  has  no  doubt 
been  the  best  for  each  Colony  to  adopt,  but  has  naturally  tended  to 
some  extent  to  prevent  the  increasing  rate  of  progress  which  would 
have  been  realised  if  from  120  to  220  miles  of  railway  had  been 
undertaken  at  a time. 

The  rate  of  construction  of  railways  in  West  Africa  is  hindered  by 
want  of  landing' facilities,  sickness  of  staff,  the  absence  of  continuity 
of  administration  due  to  climate,  excessive  rainfall,  and  the  physical 
obstruction  of  the  dense  tropical  forest,  rendering  survey  very  slow 
and  requiring  heavy  labour  in  clearing,  and  by  the  necessity  for 
carrying  on  the  entire  work  and  conveying  all  the  materials  from 
one  base. 


2()2  The  l^evclopment  of  West  A fried  h]\  Raihrays. 

Tlie  following  table  sets  out  tlio  rate  of  progress  of  c.'icli 
railway  : — 


Length 

Miles 

A venn^e 

Section 

licgnii 

Fitii.'lipil 

'I'iiite  in 
Months 

itntc  in 

Milt'S  pr  r 

.Month 

Sierra  Leone  Ihiilway 

(2  ft.  ()  in.  gauge)  : 
Freetown  — Son  go 
Town ' . 

Songo  Town-  -Koti- 

32 

Har.  1890 

Dec.  1808 

33 

1 

funk  - . 

23 

.Tune  1899 

Har.  1900 

9 

2-0 

Kotifunk — Do . 

80 

Dec.  1900 

Oct.  1902 

22 

3-0 

Do— Kaiinia^  . 

87 

•Ian.  1903 

Nov.  1904 

22 

3-9 

1 

(expected) 

(expected) 

(expected) 

Total . 

1 

222 

80 

2-7  average 

Lagos  Kail  way  (d  ft.  6 in. 

gauge)  : 

Lagos — Otta  ‘ . 

20 

Mar.  1890 

Sept.  1897 

18 

1-1 

Otta — Abeokuta  ^ 

44 

Oct.  1897 

April  1899 

18 

2-5 

Abeokuta  — Ibadan  *’ . 

01 

Hay  1899 

Dec.  1900 

19 

3-2 

Total. 

125 

.55  2-3  average 

Gold  Coast  Kail  way 

(3  ft.  ()  in.  gauge)  : 
Sekondi — Tarkwa  ' . 

40 

Aug.  1898 

May  1901 

33 

1-2 

Tarkwa — Obuassi®  . 

86 

July  1901 

Dec.  1902 

17 

5 

Obuassi  — Kuinasi 

44 

Feb.  1903 

Sept.  1903 

7 

0-3 

Total . 

170 

57 

3-0  average 

' Includes  construction  of  headquarters.  Difficult  country,  eleven  steel 
viaducts.  Interrupted  by  native  insurrection. 

- Interrupted  by  native  insurrection.  ® In  progress. 

‘ Includes  construction  of  headquarters  and  bridge  to  mainland. 

^ Delayed  by  military  operations.  Includes  terminal  work  at  Ibadan. 

’’  Includes  construction  of  headquarters  and  pier.  Delayed  by  scarcity  of 
labour  and  Ashanti  War.  Heavy  rains. 

^ Kail  laying  reached  twelve  miles  per  month.  All  traffic  offered  carried 
upon  railway. 


The  progress  of  the  British  West  African  Railways  can  be 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  by  Bailivays. 


2G3 


favourably  compared  with  the  railways  made  in  Tropical  Africa  by 
other  Powers,  as  shown  in  the  following  table 


Rate  of  Progress  of  Construction  of  Rail’>vays  in  Tropical  Africa 
BY  Other  Powers. 


Railway  j 

1 

Gauge 

Lengtli  1 

Miles  1 

1 

Began 

Finished 

Time 

in 

Years 

Average 

Rate 

France : ■ 

i 

1 

French  Senegal  : 

1 

Kayes  — Niger 

Metre  i 

348,  of  which 

1881 

Still  in 

23 

11  miles 

Railway 

250  are 

completed 

progress 

per  ann. 

French  Guinea  : 

Konakry-Niger 

Metre 

342,  of  which 

June 

Still  in  pro- 

3 

15  miles 

Railway  ‘ 

46  miles 

1900 

gress. 

per  ann. 

are  cjin- 

Reached 

pleted 

46  miles 
June  1903 

Dahomey  Rail-  ; 

Metre 

About  500 

May 

In  progress 

16  miles 

way  i 

1 

j 

miles  pro- 
posed, of 
which  55  ' 

1900 

i 

1 

per  ann. 

1 

1 

miles  are 
completed  j 

Ivory  Coast 
Germany : 

The 

proposed  rail 

way  1 

has  not  yet 

been 

started 

Karaeroons 

Congo  Free  State  : 

The 

proposed  rail 

i 

way 

has  not  yet 

been 

started 

Congo  Railway  ® . 

2'  6" ; 

250 

1889  i 

1898 

9 

28  miles 
per  ann. 

East  Africa  : 

Uganda  Railway  ^ 

: Metre 

1 584 

early 

Temporary 

6 

, 97  miles 

1896 

line,  early 
1902 

' l^er  ann. 

1 

Permanent 

78  miles 

! 

line  com- 
pleted, say. 

per  ann. 

1 

middle  of 

1 

1903 

1 

i 

Beira  Railway  . 

2'  0" 

187 

1892 

1898 

6 

; 31  miles 

altered 

per  ann. 

to 

1 

(2-6  miles 

1 3' 6" 

i 

per 

month) 

* This  line  is  open  to  46  miles,  and  work  is  proceeding  further  ahead. 

2 Easy  country,  but  Lama  swamp  at  55  miles  has  caused  delay.  Con- 
cessionaire provides  materials  only,  and  receives  a subsidy  of  £80  per  kilo, 
and  a land  grant  of  1,150  square  miles. 

® Fairly  open  country  ; imported  labour  ; 2 ft.  6 in.  gauge. 

Much  open  country ; comparatively  healthy. 


201 


The  DcvpJojyinent  of  West  Africa  by  llaihrnys. 


Tt  will  1)G  seen  from  the  above  table  that  the  rate  of  construction 
of  the  llritisb  West  African  Railways  compares  not  unfavourably 
with  other  railways  in  Tropical  Africa,  with  tlie  exception  of  the 
Uganda  Railway,  which  was  authorised  and  organised  as  a whole 
and  not  by  tentative  sections. 


Cost  of  Construct  ton. 

Tn  considering  the  cost  of  the  construction  of  railways  in  West 
Africa  due  allowance  must  he  made  for  the  fact  that  they  have 
been  constructed  through  dense  tropical  forest  in  what  is  generally 
recognised  as  the  worst  climate  in  the  world,  necessitating  very 
short  terms  of  service,  constant  changes  of  staff  in  every  grade, 
very  heavy  rainfall,  scarcity  and  inferiority  of  unskilled  labour,  and 
the  complete  absence  of  skilled  labour  ; landing  difficulties,  and 
the  necessity  of  carrying  on  construction  entirely  from  one  base. 
Further  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  native  revolts  and  military 
operations  which  have  occurred  in  each  case. 


Cost  of  the  West  African  Railways, 

Incliuling  Permcanent  Bridges,  Headquarters  Establislimcnt,  and  Bolling 
Stock,  Ac.,  complete. 


- 

Gauge 

Total  Cost 

Length  Miles 

Cost  per  Mile 

i 

Sierra  Leone  : 

Ist  section  * . 

2 ft.  6 in. 

£ 

198,946 

1 

32 

£ 

6,060 

2nd  section  - . 

2 ft.  6 in. 

97,164 

23 

4,224 

8rd  section  ^ . 

2 ft.  G in. 

319,046 

80 

3,988 

4th  section  ' . 

2 ft.  6 in. 

348,000 

1 87 

-i 

4,000 

Total  and  average  . 

958,156 

222 

4,300 

‘ Includes  establishment  at  base  and  eleven  steel  viaducts. 

2 Impeded  by  native  revolt.  Including  permanent  steel  bridges. 

Estimate. 


Gold  Coast '. 

3 ft.  6 in.  j 

1,753,488 

170 

10,300 

liUgOS  - 

. 3 ft.  6 in. 

1 ■ 1 

882,961 

125 

7,064 

’ Dense  bush,  scarcity  of  ballast,  Ashanti  War,  much  ill-health,  nearly  all 
labour  imported.  Cost  of  main  line  to  June  80,  1903. 


263 


The  Develoiwient  of  West  Africa  hy  Bailway s. 


Cost  of  other  African  Raihvays. 


- 

Gauge 

Total  Cost 

Length  Miles 

Cost  per  Mile 

£ 

£ 

Tropical  African : 

*Uganda  Railway  ' . 

Metre 

5,550,000 

584 

9,503 

f Congo  Railway  ^ 
Temperate  African : 

2 ft.  (i  in. 

2,600,000 

250 

10,400 

JCape  of  Good  Hope 

Government  Railway  . 

3 ft.  6 in. 

21,842,216 

2,089 

10,456 

' Still  incomplete.  ^ Narrow  gauge.  Severe  gradients.  Open  country. 
^ To  December  31,  1900. 


Cost  of  other  Colonial  Railways. 


fNew  South  Wales 

Government  Railway  ' . 

00 

oi..- 

?' 

38,932,781 

2,845 

13,684 

JTasmanian  Government 
Railway  ^ . . . 

3 ft.  6 in. 

1 

3,659,069 

439 

8,335 

^Queensland  Government 
Railway  ^ . . . 

3 ft.  6 in. 

19,526,370 

2,801 

6,971 

fNew  Zealand  Govern- 
ment Railway  * . 

i 

- 3 ft.  6 in. 

17,207,328 

2,212 

7,779 

' To  June  30,  1901.  - To  December  31,  1900. 

^ To  December  31,  1900.  '*  To  March  31,  1901. 


Cost  of  some  Indian  Raihvays  of  Equivalent  Gauge. 


— 

R. 

R. 

§Rajputana — Malwa  . 

Metre 

12,87,20,729 

1,674 

76,894 

^Southern  Mahratta  . 

Metre 

9,51,13,422 

1,042 

91,279 

§ South  Indian  . 

Metre 

7,42,48,486 

1,042 

71,255 

§Burma  .... 

Metre 

7,56,31,200 

886 

85,362 

* From  statement  in  Parliament,  December  1902. 

f From  Annales  des  Travaux  Publics  de  Belgique. 

j From  Statistical  Table  re  Colonial  Possessions  of  the  United  Kingdom,  1900. 

§ From  Administration  Keports  on  Eailways  in  India. 

There  is  one  important  point  to  be  noticed  with  regard  to  the 
speed  of  construction  and  the  cost  of  railways  in  West  Africa — that 
the  further  they  are  constructed  the  greater  is  the  speed  of  con- 
struction and  the  less  the  cost,  provided  they  are  authorised  and 
organised  as  a whole  and  not  in  sections.  This  is  due  to  the  better 
climate  and  the  more  open  country  found  further  inland,  the  greater 
facilities  given  to  the  staff  to  organise  the  machinery  of  construc- 
tion, the  increasing  confidence  and  efficiency  of  the  native  labourers, 
and  the  existence  of  an  established  base  with  quarters  for  the  staff, 
workshops,  and  improved  landing  facilities. 


200 


The  Development  of  West  A frica  hy  Uailways. 

SUMIMAKY  OF  T’KESFNT  1 )FVEI.01’MFNT  I?Y  IIAIEWAYK. 

To  summarise  what  has  ])Gcn  already  accomplished  in  tlie  de- 
velopment of  West  Africa  by  railway  construction  by  Great  Britain 
and  other  Powers  it  may  be  stated  : — 

That  in  Sierra  Leone  a railway  222  miles  long  has  been  nearly 
completed  traversing  the  Colony  from  West  to  Last,  forming  one 
of  the  longest  continuous  lengths  of  railway  of  2 ft.  0 in.  gauge 
in  the  world,  and  being  the  most  cheaply  constructed  line  on  the 
Western  side  of  Africa. 

In  Lagos  a 3 ft.  Gin.  gauge  line,  125  miles  long,  has  connected 
up  the  three  largest  towns  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa — Lagos, 
Abeokuta  and  Ibadan. 

On  the  Gold  Coast  a 8 ft,  G in.  line,  170  miles  long,  has  placed 
Kumasi,  the  capital  of  Ashanti,  within  sixteen  days’  journey  of 
Great  Pritain. 

The  French  have  connected  St.  Louis  and  Dakkar  hy  rail,  and 
are  proceeding  with  metre-gauge  railways  connecting  Kayes  and 
Koulikoro  in  Senegal,  Konakry  and  Kouroussa  in  French  Guinea, 
and  Kotonou  and  Paouignan  in  Dahomey. 

The  Belgians  have  connected  Matadi  and  Leopoldville  with  a 
2 ft.  G in.  gauge  line,  and  are  proceeding  with  extensions. 


Future  Development  by  Railw^ays. 

With  regard  to  the  future  development  of  West  Africa  by  railway 
construction,  the  field  is  a very  large  one.  The  immense  area  of 
Western  Africa  would  not  be  adequately  served  by  one  hundred 
times  the  length  of  railway  at  present  constructed.  All  railways, 
however,  in  West  Africa,  with  few  exceptions,  must  at  present  be 
developmental,  and  must  be  constructed  without  immediate  pro- 
spect of  a return  upon  the  cost  of  construction,  since  it  will  take 
time  to  educate  the  natives  and  develop  trade  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  return  interest  on  the  capital  expended. 

Under  these  circumstances  private  enterprise  cannot  be  expected 
to  assist  in  constructing  railways,  and  the  duty  devolves  upon  the 
Governments  of  the  Colonies  to  proceed  with  construction  as  and 
when  they  see  their  way  to  do  so,  care  being  taken  that  each 
advance  made  shall  be  part  of  a well-considered  general  scheme, 
and  that  no  one  Colony  shall  be  tempted  by  temporary  exigencies 
to  construct  a line  that  cannot  be  hereafter  absorbed  into  the 
general  system. 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  by  Bailways.  267 

Uniformity  of  gauge  is  the  most  elementary  condition  to  be 
fulfilled,  at  any  rate  where  there  is  a possibility  of  future  con- 
nections, and  the  principle  of  standardisation  of  works  of  art  and 
rolling  stock  within  certain  types  should  be  judiciously  applied. 

Such  carefully  considered  construction  can  be  proceeded  with  as 
the  resources  of  the  Colonies  permit ; but  when  the  Colonies  are 
unable  to  undertake  further  responsibilities,  the  question  arises  as 
to  whether  the  Imperial  Government  should  not  assist  the  Colonies 
by  grants  of  money  for  the  construction  of  the  most  urgent  rail- 
ways. 

' At  the  present  time  circumstances  are  perhaps  unfavourable  for 
such  action,  but  in  due  time  no  doubt  the  public  at  home  may 
realise  the  value  of  these  West  African  Colonies,  and  be  ready  to 
subscribe  to  loans  guaranteed  by  the  revenues  of  the  Colonies,  or 
to  concur  in  a substantial  grant  for  developmental  railways. 

France  has  been  already  able  to  do  this,  and  has  granted  a sum 
of  65,000,000  fr.  (£2,600,000)  for  the  completion  of  the  Senegal  line, 
the  continuation  of  the  Guinea  and  Dahomey  lines,  and  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Ivory  Coast  Railway. 

The  French  schemes  for  railways  in  West  Africa — now  in  process  , 
of  conversion,  partially  at  any  rate,  into  accomplished  facts — entirely 
dwarf  the  British  constructed  railways. 

France  is  now  pushing  forward  no  less  than  four  lines  of  railway 
with  increased  speed,  while  the  British  railways  are  drawing  near 
completion.  For  instance,  the  Dahomey  railway  is  being  vigorously 
pushed  forward  by  the  French,  while  the  adjoining  Ijagos  railway 
has  remained  stationary  for  the  last  three  years. 

-At  the  moment  it  is  important  that  the  Sierra  Leone  Railway 
should  serve  to  increase  the  trade  of  the  Colony,  but  in  this  the 
co-operation  of  enterprising  merchants  is  required  ; and  that  the 
Gold  Coast  Railway  should  assist  the  gold  mines  to  become  dividend- 
payers,  and  in  this  the  assistance  is  required  of  the  capitalist  wdio 
eagerly  subscribed  money  during  a premature  gold  boom,  but  now, 
perhaps  “once  bitten  twice  shy,”  fails  to  seethe  opportunity  for 
successful  investment  now  that  the  railway  makes  mining  possible. 
The  Colony  of  Lagos  requires  the  assistance  of  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment to  push  its  railway  northwards  to  Zaria  and  Kano,  making 
a trunk  line  of  railway  in  a fairly  central  position  in  the  Lagos- 
Nigeria  territory,  establishing  military  control  of  the  whole  area  and 
developing  its  trade,  piercing  further  inland  than  any  of  the  French 
West  African  projects,  and  preventing  the  absorption  of  the  trade  of 
Nigeria  by  the  French  Colonies. 


208 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  hij  llaihoaysi. 


Possibly  the  early  adoption  of  some  half-measure,  such  as  Sir 
Frederick  Ijii^^ard’s  proposal  of  a line  from  Paro  on  the  navigable 
Niger  to  Zaria  and  Kano,  might  assist  the  general  scheme,  but 
every  advaiitage  should  be  taken  of  the  time  elapsing  before  money 
for  any  such  scheme  becomes  available  to  continue  the  study  of 
this  scheme  in  all  its  bearings,  so  that  when  construction  is  com- 
menced it  may  be  upon  such  a route,  of  such  a gauge,  and  of  such 
a type  as  may  be  found  to  be  most  suitable  in  the  interests  of  the 
Protectorate. 

The  lantern  slides  shown  during  the  evening  are  from  the 
Author’s  photographs,  supplemented  by  private  photographs  kindly 
lent  by  Messrs.  II.  Adcock,  T.  .1.  Alldridge,  (1.  II.  f’leming  and 
T.  (I.  Maidment,  and  by  an  unique  set  of  views  of  Cotton  ( -ultivation 
in  the  Sierra  Leone  Protectorate,  by  ]\Ir.  L.  C.  Poyle,  and  by  views 
of  the  Lagos  Railway,  specially  taken  by  Mr.  F.  Ledford  Glasier, 
the  General  Manager. 


APPENDIX 

Lagos-  Government  Ha  lway. 

Changes  in  the  rosition  of  Chief  1 esldei  t Enghmr, 


Individual 

Date 

Reason  for  Leaving  Office 

Taking  Office 

Leaving  Office 

No.  1 

i 

Nov.  17,  1895 

July  7,  1896 

Piesigned  on  account  of  ill- 
health 

No.  2 

July  7,  1895 

Sept.  21,  1896 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  new  Chief 

No.  3 

Sept.  21,  1896 

May  23,  1897 

On  leave 

No.  2 

May  23,  1897 

July  29,  1897 

Invalided 

No.  4 

July  29,  1897 

Sept.  23, 1897 

Died 

No.  3 

' Sept.  23, 1897 

i:i.May  22,  1898 

Invalided  at  home 

No.  5 

May  22,  1898 

June  24,  1898 

Died  ' 

No.  6 

June  24,  1898 

i'^Aug.  7,  1898 

On  leave 

No.  7 

^ Aug.  7,  1898 

' May  16,  1899 

On  leave 

No.  (5 

May  16,  1899 

Nov.  7,  1899 

On  leave 

No.  7 

Nov.  7,  1899 

Feb.  8,  1900 

Died 

No.  8 

Feb.  8,  1900  ’ 

May  7,  1900 

On  leave 

No.  () 

May  7,  1900 

Mar.  12,  1901 

Transferred  to  Gold  Coast 

No.  1) 

Mar.  12,  1901  ) 

July  5,  1901 

On  leave 

No.  10  . : 

July  5,  1901  j 

Nov.  4,  1901 

On  leave 

No.  11  . 

Nov.  4,  1901 

Jan.  31,  1902 

Line  handed  over  to  the 

Open  Lines  Department 

The  Development  of  West  Africa  by  Daihoays. 

Changes  in  the  Position  of  Chief  Accountant. 


Individual 

Date 

Reason  for  Leaving  Office 

Taking  Office 

Leaving  Office 

No.  1 

Jan.  1,  1896 

Mar.  30,  1896 

Died 

No.  2 

April  4,  1896 

Mar.  18,  1897 

On  leave 

No.  3 

Mar.  18,  1897 

Aug.  27,  1897 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  new  Chief 

No.  2 

Aug.  27,  1897 

Nov.  2,  1897 

Died 

No.  4 

Nov.  2,  1897 

Mar.  31,  1901 

Transferred  to  Open  Lines 

No.  3 

Mar.  31,  1901 

June  5,  1901 

Transferred  to  Gold  Coast 

No.  5 

June  5,  1901 

Jan.  31,  1902 

Construction  Dept,  closed 

Changes  in  the  Position  of  Chief  Storekeegyer. 


No.  1 

Sept.  23,  1896 

May  23,  1897 

On  leave 

No.  2 

May  23,  1897 

Sept.  23,  1897 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  new  Chief 

No.  1 

Sept.  23,  1897 

Dec.  17,  1897 

Invalided 

No.  3 

Dec.  17,  1897 

May  22,  1898 

On  leave 

No.  4 

May  22,  1898 

Oct.  3,  1898 

On  leave 

No.  3 

Oct.  3,  1898 

May  31,  1899 

Dismissed 

No.  4 

May  31,  1899 

Aug.  20,  1899 

On  leave 

No.  5 

Aug.  20,  1899 

Feb.  22,  1900 

Died 

No.  6 

Feb.  22,  1900 

April  22, 1900 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  new  Chief 

No.  4 

April  22,  1900 

Jan.  1,  1901 

Transferred  to  Gold  Coast 

No.  7 

Jan.  1,  1901 

Feb.  1,  1901 

On  leave 

No.  8 

Feb.  1,  1901 

May  18,  1901 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  new  Chief 

No.  6 

May  18,  1901 

Oct.  14,  1901 

Transferred  to  Open  Lines 

Sierra  Leone  Government  Kailway. 


Changes  in  the  Position  of  Chief  Resident  Engineer. 


No.  1 

Nov.  16,  1895 

July  7,  1896  i 

On  leave 

No.  2 

July  7,  1896 

Nov.  7,  1896  I 

i 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  Chief 

No.  1 

Nov.  7,  1896 

July  23,  1897 

On  leave 

No.  3 

July  23,  1897 

Nov.  26,  1897 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  Chief 

No.  1 

Nov.  26,  1897 

Sept.  25,  1898  j 

On  leave 

No.  3 

Sept.  25, 1898 

Mar.  5,  1899  ! 

Acting  ajipointment  only, 
relieved  by  Chief 

No.  1 

Mar.  5,  1899 

Mar.  3,  1900  ' 

Transferred  to  Gold  Coast 

No.  3 

Mar.  3,  1900 

July  21,  1900  ' 

On  leave 

No.  4 

' July  21,  1900 

Jan.  21,  1901 

On  leave 

No.  5 

Jan.  21,  1901 

Feb.  19,  1901 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  new  Chief 

No.  3 

Feb.  19,  1901 

May  9,  1901 

Invalided 

No.  6 

j May  9,  1901 

Sept.  26, 1901 

1 Acting  appointment  only, 

1 relieved  by  new  Chief 

‘270 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  l>n  Railwaijs. 

Changes  in  the  Pusiiion  of  Chief  Jiesident  Fnujincer. — cont. 


Imlividu.'il 

Date 

IleiiHon  for  I.eiving  Odlee 

'J'akiiig  Ollicc 

Leaving  Ofllee 

No.  2 

No.  (> 

No.  2 

No.  G 

No.  2 

He])!.  2G,  1901 
May  2G,  1902 

Oct.  2,  1902 
May,  1903 

Oct.,  1903 

May  2(;,  1902 
Oct.  2,  1902 

May,  1903 

Oct.,  19!0 

( )u  l(;avc 

Acting  appointnu'iit  only, 
rclicwctl  by  Chief 

On  leave 

Acting  'ajipointnient  only, 
reru.'veil  by  (!liief 

Still  in  Colony 

Goi.i)  Coast  Govkknmknt  IvAir.wAY. 

Changes  in  the  Position  of  Chief  llesident  Engineer. 

No.  1 

Feb.  9,  1898 

May  24,  1898 

Special  leave  to  attend  con- 
ference re  route 

No.  2 

May  24,  1898 

Aug.  2G,  1898 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  Chief 

No.  1 

Aug.  2G,  1898 

May  18,  1899 

On  leave 

No.  2 

May  18,  1899 

Oct.  G,  1899 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  Chief 

No.  1 

Oct.  G,  1899 

June  5,  1900 

liesigned 

No.  3 

June  5,  1900 

Nov.  17,  1900 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  new  Chief 

No.  4 

Nov.  17,  1900 

July  15,  1901 

liesigned 

No.  3 

■ July  15,  1901 

! Sept.  G,  1901 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  new  Chief 

No.  5 

Sept.  G,  1901 

May  8,  1902 

On  leave 

No.  G 

May  8,  1902 

Sept.  22,  1902 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  Chief 

No.  0 

^ Sept.  22, 1902 

July,  1903 

On  leave 

No.  G 

1 July,  1903 

Oct.,  1903 

Acting  appointment  only, 
relieved  by  Chief 

No.  5 

Oct.,  1903 

Mar.,  1904 

Line  handed  over  to  Open 
Lines  Department 

Discussion. 

The  Chaiiiman  (tils  Grace  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  K.G.)  : I 
feel  sure  you  will  allow  me  to  express  on  your  behalf  the  great 
interest  and  pleasure  Mr.  Shelford  has  afforded  us,  both  by  his 
lecture  and  by  the  admirable  illustrations  he  has  put  upon  the 
screen.  Our  minds  have  been  so  much  occupied  with  South  Africa 
and  the  great  problems  involved  in  that  part  of  the  w^orld  that 
for  the  moment,  perhaps,  our  attention  has  been  diverted  from 
the  importance  of  our  Wert  African  possessions.  J beheve,  a belief 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  hij  Dailways.  271 

which  is  rather  the  result  of  conversation  with  those  who  are 
acquainted  with  West  Africa,  that  the  possibilities  of  our  pro- 
tectorates there,  and  of  developing  them  in  the  future,  are  enormous, 
and  that  we  may  look  forward  to  an  increasing  trade  between  them 
and  the  Mother  Country,  a trade  which  will  be  most  profitable  to 
ourselves  and  advantageous  to  the  inhabitants  of  those  territories. 
Mr.  Bhelford  pointed  out  in  the  early  part  of  his  lecture  that  the 
fact  of  these  railways  having  been  built  will  help  us  to  get  troops 
more  swiftly  into  the  districts  traversed,  and  so  enable  us  to  put 
down  any  risings  which  might  occur.  Well,  they  could,  no  doubt, 
be  employed  for  that  purpose,  but  I think  they  have  an  even  more 
valuable  purpose  to  serve.  For  the  mere  fact  of  our  having  con- 
structed these  railways  ensures,  to  a certain  extent,  the  civilisation 
of  the  natives  themselves,  who  will  be  brought  into  closer  contact 
with  the  representatives  of  this  country,  and  from  their  relations 
with  Englishmen  whom  they  meet  will  gain  confidence  in  our  rule 
and  learn  to  recognise  the  justice  and  proper  treatment  which  we 
mete  out  to  those  under  us.  I think  these  influences,  of  themselves, 
will  be  a far  greater  security  that  in  future  we  shall  have  no  rising 
or  other  difficulties  in  connection  with  the  natives  than  the  mere 
fact  that  we  are  able  to  get  our  troops  about  more  expeditiously. 
It  is  carious  to  think,  after  looking  at  the  slides  showing  the 
admirable  work  that  has  been  done  in  West  Africa,  that  ten  years 
ago  not  ten  yards  of  railway  had  been  laid.  The  whole  of  this 
construction  has  been  carried  out  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  I 
think  I am  right  in  saying  that  an  average  of  about  fifty  miles  of 
railway  has  been  laid  every  year  since  then — that  is  to  say,  about  five 
hundred  miles  in  all.  Thus  we  have  been  able  to  construct  a rail- 
way, say,  from  here  as  far  as  Oxford  every  year  during  the  last  ten 
years.  I certainly  think  that  reflects  some  credit  on  the  energy 
and  enterprise  of  the  late  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  and 
of  those  associated  with  him  during  the  years  he  was  at  the 
Colonial  Office.  On  this  point  I will  say  further  that  I have  no 
doubt  that,  although  the  inspiration  and  the  initiative  came  from 
him,  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  make  these  railways  so 
successfully  had  it  not  been  for  the  hearty  co-operation  and  the 
skill  and  science  of  those  great  firms  on  whose  technical  know- 
ledge we  are,  to  so  large  an  extent,  obliged  to  rely.  Mr.  Shelford 
touched  on  the  cost  of  these  railways.  I dare  say  some  of  you  may 
think  that  they  cost  a considerable  amount  of  money.  I am  not 
really  qualified  to  express  an  opinion  on  that  point ; but  I was  very 
much  interested  in  the  admirable  analysis  Mr.  She-lford  gave,  not 


‘272  The  Dcvelojmieni  of  Weal  Africa  hy  Tidlhvaya. 

only  of  the  cost  of  tliese  railways  as  compared  with  those  of  otlua’ 
countri(5S,  hut  also  of  the  comparative  rate  of  construction.  I think 
we  may  fairly  claim  that  we  have  not  been  heliind  other  countries 
in  the  rate  of  construction,  and  that  our  own  railways  have  not 
exceeded  in  cost  those  of  our  colonial  competitors.  The  avera<,m 
rate  of  construction  per  month  is,  1 think,  a very  fair  average,  con- 
sidering the  enormous  difficulties  that  have  to  he  encountered,  the 
great  jungles  which  have  to  he  cut  through,  and  the  primitive 
methods  which  have  to  be  employed  to  overcome  various  engineer- 
ing difficulties.  We  have  heard  much  about  the  Uganda  Railway, 
and  there  are  those  who  consider  that  its  construction  was  very 
expensive,  but  the  Congo  Railway  (which,  I presume,  was  built  l)y 
the  King  of  the  I Belgians  and  has  a narrower  gauge)  cost  over 
£^10,000  a mile,  whereas  the  Uganda  Railway  cost  about  £'1),500  a 
mile.  I think,  then,  we  may  claim  that  the  cost  of  our  railways, 
although  no  doubt  considerable,  is  certainly  less  than  the  cost  to 
other  countries  who  are  trying  to  carry  out  the  same  pioneer  work  as 
ourselves.  Mr.  Shelford  touched  upon  the  importance  of  Nigeria  and 
the  possibilities  of  railway  construction  in  that  territory.  Speaking 
not  only  for  myself,  but  for  those  with  whom  I am  connected,  from 
the  Secretary  of  State  downwards  at  the  Colonial  Oflice,  I am  sure 
we  all  hope  that  in  the  future  that  work  of  railway  construction 
which  has  been  so  successful  in  West  Africa  may  be  continued  in 
a yet  greater  extension  in  Lagos,  Southern  Nigeria,  and  Northern 
Nigeria.  It  is  obvious,  of  course,  that  in  these  matters  we  cannot 
move  very  swiftly.  I confess,  when  I ponder  over  them,  I feel  that 
the  life  of  a man  should  be  at  least  iOO  years,  and  that  in  the  short 
space  of  time  Under  Secretaries  are  allowed  and  permitted  to 
remain  in  different  Government  departments  we  cannot  hope  to  see 
carried  out  all  those  great  schemes  which  we  are  so  anxious  to  see 
completed  in  the  future,  We  must  have  patience,  and  look  forward 
with  hope  that  between  now  and  some  years  to  come  sufficient 
funds  may  be  forthcoming  to  develop  a real  railway  system  from 
the  sea  coast  up  into  the  heart  and  centre  of  Nigeria  to  Zaria  or 
Kano,  which  will  enable  us  to  open  up  the  country  and  at  the  same 
time  develop  the  great  cotton  industry,  which  will  not  only  be  a 
benefit  to  the  Colony  itself  but  help  to  supply  the  deficiency  of 
cotton  now  existing  in  the  Lancashire  market.  But  when  these 
schemes  will  be  put  into  practical  effect  it  is  difficult  to  say.  I only 
hope  that,  whoever  may  be  responsible  for  constructing  these  rail- 
ways, they  will  bear  in  mind  the  admirable  help  and  scientific 
knowledge  which  has  been  so  willingly  and  freely  given  to  the 


The  Development  oj  West  Africa  hy  Baihoays.  273 

Colonial  Office  by  firms  like  Messrs.  Shelford  & Son  in  years 
gone  by. 

Sir  William  MacGregor,  K.C.M.G.,  C.B.  : Ifc  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected, as  you  will  have  gathered  from  the  lecture,  that  everyone 
will  agree  with  Mr.  Shelford  in  all  his  opinions,  but  we  shall  all 
agree  that  he  has  done  well  to  bring  before  us  in  the  way  he  has 
done  this  very  interesting  and  important  question.  It  is  a subject 
on  which  a great  deal  might  be  said,  but  I shall  confine  my  remarks 
to  a few  points  which  have  occurred  to  me  during  the  reading  of  the 
Paper.  First  of  all  as  to  the  way  we  built  these  railways  in  West 
Africa.  Mr.  Shelford  has  put  before  you  the  various  uses  to  which 
they  are  put.  I am  glad  he  has  drawn  attention  to  the  important 
point  that  in  the  Colony  which  I have  the  honour  to  govern  at 
the  present  time  the  railway  is  not  required  for  the  purpose  of 
putting  down  disturbances.  We  have  no  internal  war  in  Lagos. 
But  if  we  have  no  war,  we  have  a population  which  is  very  intent  on 
agricultural  and  economical  development.  It  is  for  that  reason 
we  require  our  railways  and  a further  extension  in  the  Colony. 
You  will  see  from  the  map  that  a lagoon  extends  from  Lagos 
towards  the  east  which  is  navigable  for  small  craft  up  to  the 
boundary  of  Southern  Nigeria.  It  extends  in  the  other  direction 
as  far  as  Dahomey.  That  also  is  capable  of  being  navigated  by 
vessels  of  small  draft.  But  for  carrying  trade  and  commerce 
inland  we  have  only  the  railway  from  Lagos  to  Ibadan.  The  best 
land  for  the  cultivation  of  cotton  lies  beyond  the  present  railway. 
It  therefore  becomes  for  us  a matter  of  great  importance  that  the 
railway  should  be  extended.  Mr.  Shelford  has  referred  to  the 
population  of  these  districts.  If  I differ  from  him  at  all,  it  is  that 
I on  the  whole,  perhaps,  entertain  a higher  opinion  than  he  does 
of  the  enterprise  and  energy  of  the  Yorubas.  They  are  more 
energetic  and  enterprising  than  Mr.  Shelford  thinks,  and  if  he  had 
been  as  much  among  them  as  I have  I am  sure  he  would  entertain 
as  high  an  opinion  of  their  capabilities  as  I do.  But  there  is 
another  reason  for  building  railways  in  our  Lagos  territory.  He  has 
pointed  out  what  our  neighbours  are  doing — they  are  building  rail- 
ways as  fast  as  they  can.  Can  we  afford  to  be  behind  them  ? I 
think  not ; for,  if  we  are,  we  shall  undoubtedly  lose  our  trade  and 
commerce.  As  far  as  I as  a layman  am  able  to  judge,  the  railway 
from  Lagos  to  Ibadan  is  quite  sufficiently  substantial  to  serve  as 
a trunk  line,  to  be  extended  to  Kano  if  you  like.  That  is  a very 
important  point.  There  is  one  question  which  has  been  much 
debated  of  late  in  this  country  ; I mean  the  method  of  construction 


274  TJic  Development  of  West  A friea  hij  Railways. 

I see  no  reason  wliy  that  question  sliould  not  be  looked  fairly  in  the 
face.  T have  a clear  and  decided  opinion  myself  that  the  extension 
of  our  railway  from  Ibadan  would  be  much  better  carried  out  under 
the  present  departmental  system  than  under  any  other  plan.  What 
is  the  position  of  a consulting  engineer?  lie  has  accumulated  a 
valuable  amount  of  experience  ; he  has  learnt  how  to  cope  with  the 
difliculties  which  present  themselves — difficulties  due  to  weather, 
physical  obstacles,  and  the  like — and  is  therefore  quite  at  home  in 
dealing  with  the  whole  subject;  but  would  that  be  the  position  of 
any  contractor  ? Certainly  not.  But  sirice  these  railways  were 
undertaken  there  comes  in  another  question— the  sanitary  (luestion. 
It  is  clear  that  the  engineer  and  the  doctor  ought  to  run  in  double 
harness,  so  to  say,  in  that  part  of  the  world.  In  no  matter  is  that 
more  important  than  in  the  building  of  railways.  I should  dread 
the  construction  of  railways  by  a contractor  in  Lagos.  IBs  object 
would  be  simply  to  build  his  railway  irrespective  of  sanitary  con- 
siderations at  the  least  cost  to  himself,  with  the  result  that  he 
would  leave  lines  of  great  pits,  and  each  pit  would  be  bound  to 
become  a centre  for  the  propagation  of  malarial  fever.  Jt  is  most 
essential,  I think,  that  sanitation  should  be  kept  in  view  from  the 
commencement  of  the  building  of  the  railway  until  the  end.  I 
therefore  hope  the  departmental  system  will  be  adhered  to,  for  in 
that  way  we  shall  have  all  the  advantage  of  the  experience  already 
gained  and  avoid  prejudicing  our  future.  When  our  railway  is 
completed,  including  not  only  construction  but  rolling-stock, 
approaches,  &c.,  the  Colony  will  have  to  find  about  £1,300,000. 
That  is  a large  sum  of  money,  and  the  question  is.  Is  that  quite 
prudent  ? It  is  to  be  advanced  partly  by  the  Imperial  Government, 
and  partly  by  the  Crown  Agents.  As  regards  the  latter,  I wish  to 
say  this.  I first  became  the  Treasurer  of  a Colony  in  1877,  and 
from  that  time  to  now  1 have  seen  a good  deal  of  the  financial 
transactions  of  the  Crown  Agents,  and  I wish  to  say  frankly  and 
openly  I have  been  very  much  struck  with  the  excellent  way  in 
which  they  have  always  been  able  to  obtain  money  to  advance  to 
any  of  the  Crown  Colonies.  How  it  is  done  I have  never  been 
quite  able  to  understand,  but  I am  clearly  of  opinion  that  they 
confer  on  the  Colonies  great  advantages  in  the  way  they  are  able  to 
advance  money  to  them  on  favourable  terms.  Will  all  this  pay? 
At  the  present  time  the  Lagos  line  pays  working  expenses  and 
something  more.  It  has  come  up  to  all  I looked  for  during  the 
first  few  years  of  its  existence.  If  the  railway  is  extended  so  as  to 
open  up  the  best  parts  of  the  cotton  country,  and  so  as  to  give 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  hy  Baihvays. 


275 


us  a greater  length  of  line,  with  almost  the  same  stock  as  at  present, 

I have  no  doubt  the  Lagos  line  will  pay  working  expenses  and  also, 

I believe,  interest  on  capital.  If  so,  then  I say  the  policy  of  the 
extension  of  railways  is  not  only  the  right  one,  but  one  which 
ought  to  be  pushed  on  with  vigour. 

Sir  Alfeed  Jones,  K.C.M.G.  : I think  anyone  who  knows  our 
trade  and  the  position  of  things  in  West  Africa  must  be  more  than 
ever  convinced  we  are  a nation  of  grumblers.  I grumbled  for  more 
than  twenty  years  because  we  could  not  get  railways  made,  and  I 
think  I should  have  been  grumbling  now  if  we  had  not  had  Mr. 
Chamberlain  at  the  Colonial  Office.  Now  that  they  are  constructed, 
there  are  those  who  grumble  at  the  cost.  I think  the  railways  have 
been  very  well  made,  in  the  face  of  great  difficulties,  and  for  my 
own  part  I think,  whatever  the  cost,  Africa  should  have  these  rail- 
ways in  the  interest  of  both  Africa  and  of  this  country.  I was  very 
much  pleased  to  hear  the  speech  of  Sir  William  MacGregor ; no  one 
has  done  more  for  Africa  than  he  has  done.  I speak  as  President 
of  the  Liverpool  Tropical  School,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  that 
school  and  the  London  School  have  done  much  for  the  health  not 
only  of  the  British  people  there  but  of  the  natives  ; and  on  that  point 
I would  say  that  the  British  people  can  never  do  any  good  in  Africa 
unless  they  make  the  position  of  the  native  prosperous.  I tried  to 
push  the  Government  into  the  making  of  these  railways.  If  I had 
the  thing  to  do  over  again  I do  not  think  I could  have  made  them 
better  than  they  have  been  made.  We  never  should  have  had 
these  railways  but  for  the  active  co-operation  of  the  Crown  Agents 
and  Sir  Montagu  Ommanney.  As  to  cotton-growing,  I consider 
we  ought  to  have  begun  this  twenty  years  ago.  Africa  possesses 
enormous  possibilities,  but  you  cannot  have  cotton  and  you  cannot 
have  Lancashire  secured  in  this  respect  unless  you  have  some  means 
of  carrying  the  cotton  from  the  interior.  There  is  abundance  of 
labour  at  6c7.  a day,  while  in  America  you  have  to  pay  4s.  The 
best  missionary  you  can  send  to  Africa  is  “ the  Iron  Horse,”  which 
will  make  the  country.  If  the  British  people  have  not  got  the  money 
they  can  borrow.  Make  the  railways : don’t  stand  still.  The 
French  are  going  ahead  and  you  cannot  afford  to  stand  still.  In 
ten  years  you  might  have  cotton  from  Africa  which  would  supply  not 
only  what  Lancashire  wants  but  what  America  wants,  because  the 
supply  is  cheaper  from  Africa  than  what  you  can  get  in  America, 
I think  a great  deal  of  credit  is  due  to  Mr.  Shelford.  We  ought 
to  be  thankful  for  what  we  have  got,  and  try  to  get  as  much  more  as 
we  can. 

T 2 


270  The  Development  of  Wcfit  Africa  by  Ttaibeays. 

Capt.  C.  II.  Kf.gke  : It  has  boon  a great  privilege  to  listen  to  the 
admirable  Paper  we  have  just  beard  road  by  Mr.  Shelford — tbo 
more  interesting  to  me  inasmuch  as  I have  watched  the  Tjagos  lino 
in  its  course  of  construction  for  the  past  five  years,  living  amongst 
the  workers  and  noting  their  methods  of  procedure.  One  fact  with 
which  T am  sure  all  will  be  in  concordance  is,  that  for  the  pros- 
perous development  of  such  territories  as  we  possess  in  West 
Africa  railways  are  far  and  above  the  best  expanders,  civil isators, 
developers,  and,  to  use  photographic  parlance,  “ fixers,”  that  it  is 
possible  at  the  present  moment  to  devise.  They  are  better,  less 
costly  in  the  long  run,  and  more  permanent  in  every  way  than 
military  expeditions  with  the  IMaxim  gun.  Phis  granted,  there 
remains  the  question  of  the  expense  both  in  money  and  life  of  the 
present  system  of  railway  construction.  Can  cither  be  lessened?  1 
say  most  emphatically  yes  they  can.  To  compare  the  cost  of  our 
railways  with  those  of  the  French,  or  the  cost  of  this  line  with  that, 
is,  to  my  mind,  practically  useless,  for  each  line  of  construction  has 
its  own  separate  problems  peculiar  to  itself  and  influenced  to  a 
large  extent  by  the  cost  of  labour  and  land,  tunnelling  and  bridging. 
Eliminate  these  varying  factors,  and  there  remain  the  two  common 
ones,  common  to  all  lines — viz.  the  cost  of  labour  and  life  in  their 
construction.  If  these  bills  could  in  any  way  be  diminished,  we 
should  surely  be  stepping  in  the  right  direction.  I hope  to  show 
you  that  they  can.  Of  the  urgent  necessity  of  a continuation  of 
our  railway  policy  in  West  Africa  from  a national  point  of  view 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  But  unfortunately  railways  cost  money, 
and  with  the  market  upset  as  it  was  by  the  South  African  war  it  is 
not  perhaps  the  happiest  time  at  present  to  expect  Imperial  loans 
in  this  connection.  If  the  war  above  referred  to  had  not  taken 
place  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  Government  would  have 
been  able  to  do  far  more  in  this  direction  than  they  have  been.  It 
is,  however,  no  use  crying  over  spilt  milk,  and  these  considerations  of 
the  “ lack  of  the  needful  ” make  it  the  more  imperative  for  us  to  cut 
down  the  expense  of  construction  if  possible.  To  effect  this,  what 
I propose  is  as  follows  ; and  that  the  idea  will  present  certain 
difficulties  at  first  sight  I am  not  vain  enough  to  disbelieve.  I 
would  have  the  Colonies  by  themselves,  with  their  own  personnel^ 
play  a larger  part  than  heretofore  in  the  rough  work  of  construction. 
The  final  survey  of  the  proposed  extension  being  completed,  I would 
hand  over  to  the  Public  Works  Department  of  the  Colony  the  work 
of  preparing  the  rough  way.  The  staff  of  this  department  might 
have  to  be  increased  for  the  purpose  ; but  in  this,  as  in  the  method  of 


The  Develo2)ment  of  West  Africa  hy  Baihvays.  277 

carrying  out  the  work,  the  Governor  of  the  Colony,  and  through  him 
the  Director  of  Public  Works,  would  be  given  a free  hand.  The 
work  in  the  rough,  and  of  course  minus  bridges  and  other  per- 
manent structures,  being  completed,  the  expert  staff  would  be  called 
in  to  lay  the  rails  and  complete  the  line.  I am  convinced  a great 
saving  could  be  effected  in  this  way.  At  present,  construction  staffs 
come  out  in  their  expensive  numbers.  They  are  new  to  the 
country  and  to  the  local  conditions,  and  doubtless  much  money  and 
health  is  lost  before  they  become  settled  down.  For  the  same 
reason — and  this  is  my  second  proposition — I would  have  the  entire 
medical  supervision  of  all  railway  hands  under  the  Government 
medical  officers  of  the  Colony.  Mr.  Shelford  refers  to  West  Africa 
as  being  admittedly  the  most  unhealthy  of  places.  I doubt  if  this 
will  be  repeated  fifty  years  hence.  Enormous  changes  are  taking 
place  in  this  direction  now  at  the  present  time,  and  certainly,  if  I 
were  a labourer,  I would  unhesitatingly  prefer  to  work  for  eight 
months  in  the  plains  of  West  Africa  rather  than,  for  instance,  those 
of  India.  The  nature  of  railway  work,  which  necessitates  the 
upturning  of  so  much  soil,  predisposes  the  officials  engaged  to  ill- 
health,  and  this  renders  it  doubly  necessary  that  they  should  have 
at  hand  doctors  thoroughly  versed  in  local  lore  to  attend  them  when 
stricken.  The  necessity  so  ably  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Shelford  of 
constructing  all  our  lines  which  have  any  future  chance  of  joining 
each  other  on  the  same  system  is  too  obviously  clear  to  need  com- 
ment. For  instance,  it  would,  in  my  humble  opinion,  appear  the 
reverse  of  wise  if  Northern  Nigeria  were  to  construct  a line  upon  any 
but  the  3 ft.  6 in.  gauge  of  Lagos,  for  that  the  two  must  one  day 
join  can  scarcely  be  questioned.  I must  thank  the  Council  of  the 
Institute  for  permitting  me  to  speak  on  such  an  extremely  interest- 
ing and  important  subject. 

Mr.  T.  J.  Alldeidge  (District  Commissioner,  Sherbro)  : It  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  realise  that  the  magnificent  views  at  which 
we  have  been  looking  represent  scenes  in  territories  which  do  not 
enjoy  the  highest  reputation  for  civilisation  and  for  salubrity. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  want  of  overland  transport  has  been 
the  means  of  retarding  civilisation  and  keeping  back  the  development 
of  the  enormous  natural  resources  which  West  Africa  possesses. 
For  my  own  part,  I propose  to  speak  only  a few  words  on  the  Colony 
of  Sierra  Leone,  and  more  particularly  on  the  district  with  which 
I am  associated,  Sherbro.  The  transformation  which  has  taken 
place  in  Sierra  Leone  since  the  introduction  of  railways  by  the 
Government  is  remarkable,  and  to  persons  like  myself,  who  have 


278  The  Development  of  West  Africa  hy  Haikvays. 

frequently  in  earlier  days  had  to  go  over  land  by  hammock  uhicli 
is  now  traversed  hy  railways,  the  change  seems  incredible.  It  must 
be  patent  that,  although  there  may  be  vast  natural  resources  within 
a district,  those  resources  are  absolutely  wasted  uidcss  the  natives 
have  the  means  of  transporting  their  commodities  down  to  the 
coast  line.  You  will  observe  that  the  railway  at  present  runs  as 
far  as  ]>o,  but  there  is  an  extension  which  is  to  carry  the  railway  to 
llaiima.  I am  able  to  speak  with  some  sort  of  authority  because 
I have  had  some  thirty-three  years’  experience  of  West  Africa.  Now, 
the  country  that  that  railway  is  traversing  at  present  is  one  of  the 
richest  in  the  Colony.  After  the  railway  has  got  to  Baiima  it  will 
be  necessary,  I think,  that  it  should  be  brought  down  in  a southern 
direction  to  those  districts  which  arc  undoubtedly  amongst  the  richest 
in  indigenous  productiveness  within  that  sphere  of  influence,  the 
Gaura-Tunkia  and  Barri  countries.  The  map  you  see  on  the  walls 
is  dotted  about  with  palm  trees.  The  exports  from  Sherbro  last 
year  of  palm  kernels  amounted  to  14,000  tons.  They  are  got  from 
under  the  fronds  of  the  oil  palms  and  grow  in  large  bunches.  After 
they  are  pulled  down  the  palm  oil  is  expressed  through  the  outer 
covering  of  the  nut.  It  takes  four  tons  of  palm  nuts  to  make  one 
of  palm  kernel ; it  follows  that  the  14,000  tons  these  natives  crack 
represent  no  less  than  5G,000  tons  of  palm  nuts  which  have  to  be 
dealt  with  in  that  way.  Y"et  we  hear  people  at  home  say  that  the 
people  are  a lazy  set.  One  of  the  greatest  object-lessons  for  these 
people  has  been  the  railway  going  through  the  country  without  any 
visible  means  of  propulsion.  It  must  be  evident  that  the  time  is 
near  at  hand  when  steam  or  other  power  must  be  introduced  into 
the  district,  and  then  we  shall  be  able  to  set  free  an  enormous 
amount  of  labour  now  wasted  over  the  cracking  of  these  palm  nuts, 
and  which  labour  will  be  used  in  some  other  industries,  as,  for 
instance,  the  growing  of  cotton.  We  want  this  cotton  grown.  I 
was  in  Lancashire  a few  days  ago  and  learned  the  distress  there 
was  appalling.  I was  taken  over  one  of  the  mills  and  was  told  that 
the  week  before  they  had  worked  only  twelve  hours.  Unless  we 
can  produce  cotton  in  our  Colonies  I do  not  know  what  state  of 
things  will  come  about  in  Lancashire.  Sir  Alfred  Jones,  whose 
name  is  well  known  to  everybody,  not  only  in  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  but  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  sent  out  large  quantities 
of  seed,  some  of  which  was  sent  to  me,  and  I had  it  planted  under 
the  supervision  of  an  expert  from  the  Southern  States  of  America. 
Wo  did  very  well,  raising  beautiful  cotton,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  as  soon  as  we  can  interest  the  people  in  the  growing  of  this 


The  Development  of  West  Africa  by  Bailways.  279 

cotton  we  shall  be  able  to  grow  very  large  quantities.  The  poten- 
tialities of  that  part  of  the  West  Coast  with  which  I am  associated 
are  enormous.  There  is  no  over-estimating  the  value  of  the  place. 
There  is  nothing  speculative  about  it.  I will  only  add  that  when 
you  go  away  to-night  I hope  you  will  give  a thought  to  the  great 
work  which  is  being  done  by  the  Government  of  the  Colonies  of 
West  Africa  and  do  what  you  can  to  make  the  places  prosperous. 
By  doing  that  and  finding  work  for  these  native  people,  you  will  be 
helping  to  uphold  the  dignity  of  the  great  Empire  to  which  you  and 
I have  the  privilege  and  honour  to  belong. 

Mr.  H.  G.  Humby  (consulting  engineer  in  London  to  the  Natal 
Government)  wished  to  correct  a statement  made  by  Mr.  Shelford 
in  the  course  of  his  remarks  to  the  effect  that  the  Natal  railways 
had  cost  ^14,000  per  mile.  This  was  absolutely  incorrect.  Mr. 
Shelford  might  have  taken  from  some  Blue  Book  the  capital  cost  of 
these  railways,  and  divided  the  total  by  the  mileage.  If  he  had 
done  so,  undoubtedly  these  railways  would  appear  to  have  cost  a 
large  sum,  which  in  reality  they  had  not,  the  reason  being  that  the 
capital  expenditure  included  the  reconstruction  of  some  250  or  300 
miles,  and  various  other  alterations  that  had  been  effected.  To 
compare  the  West  Coast  Railways  with  Natal  was  something  like 
comparing  the  Festiniog  Railway  with  the  North-Western  or  the 
Great  Northern.  As  an  old  railway  engineer,  he  appreciated  all  the 
difficulties  set  forth  in  Mr.  Shelford’s  Paper,  and  he  thought  great 
credit  was  due  to  the  engineering  staff  for  having  overcome  those 
difficulties  in  the  way  they  had  in  so  short  a space  of  time. 

The  Chaieman  : I now  move  a vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Shelford 
for  his  interesting  Paper.  We  have  listened  with  the  greatest 
satisfaction  to  the  many  new  and  striking  points  in  connection 
with  railway  construction  about  which  he  has  told  us,  and  we  have 
greatly  admired  the  numerous  photographs,  some  of  which,  I have 
no  doubt,  were  taken  with  a considerable  amount  of  trouble.  It 
has  been  to  me  a source  of  great  gratification  to  be  present  this 
evening,  and  I am  sure  I am  expressing  the  views  and  wishes  of 
everybody  present  when  I tender  to  Mr.  Shelford  our  hearty 
thanks. 

Mr.  Feed  Shelfoed  : I am  in  the  position  of  having  laid  before 
you  some  facts  and  figures  illustrated  by  maps,  cartoons,  and  lantern 
slides,  showing  the  work  carried  on  in  West  Africa,  and  in  the 
discussion  which  has  followed  I have  listened  with  interest  to 
remarks  from  officials  of  high  standing.  I am  extremely  obliged  to 
those  gentlemen  for  the  remarks  they  have  made  and  the  informa- 


280  The  Development  of  West  Africa  by  Railways. 

tion  they  have  given  us.  The  Chairman  mentioned  that  the 
average  amount  of  railway  constructed  during  the  last  ten  years  has 
been  at  the  rate  of  50  miles  a year.  That  is  perfectly  correct,  but 
it  covers,  of  course,  all  the  halts  which  occurred.  For  various  reasons 
it  may  be  interesting  in  this  respect  to  remark  that  the  average 
speed  which  can  usually  be  maintained  in  railway  construction  in 
West  Africa  is  about  0 miles  a month  that  is,  72  miles  a year.  1 
quite  agree  that,  to  compare  the  cost  per  mile  of  lines  in  certain 
countries  with  the  cost  in  other  countries  is  not  altogether  fair, 
because  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  conditions  in  each  case,  and 
to  compare  the  cost  in  one  Colony  with  the  cost  in  another,  where 
these  conditions  are  perhaps  wholly  different,  is  misleading.  The 
figures  seem,  however,  to  be  demanded  by  the  public.  I did  not 
deal  with  the  question  of  the  method  of  construction  in  my  Paper, 
but  I may  mention  that  in  the  case  of  the  Gold  Coast,  when  we 
started,  we  had  not  an  exact  knowledge  of  even  the  length  of  the 
line.  I thought  it  would  be  180  miles,  but  it  proved  to  be  IGH.  Nor 
did  we  know  how  many  streams  were  to  be  crossed,  or  what  was  the 
character  of  the  country.  You  cannot  very  well  enter  into  a contract 
upon  information  of  that  kind.  With  regard  to  extensions,  the 
method  of  construction  is  a matter  which  will,  of  course,  be  carefully 
gone  into  by  the  authorities  concerned.  Having  carried  out  these 
works  “ departmentally,”  and  having  also  had  large  experience  of 
contract  work,  my  firm  has  been  in  the  position  to  observe  one  or 
two  advantages  of  the  departmental  system  of  construction  which 
I can  point  out.  The  system  is  that  the  Government  itself  makes 
the  line,  employing  the  engineering  staff  and  purchasing  the  best 
materials.  If  any  alteration  is  required,  such  as  altering  the  route 
of  the  line  or  the  position  of  a station,  it  is  easily  done,  whereas 
when  a contract  is  in  force  any  alteration  may  mean  a claim  for 
“ extras.”  Moreover,  in  the  case  of  a contract,  there  is  always 
the  danger  of  the  contractor,  on  account  of  unexpected  difficulties, 
coming  to  the  end  of  his  resources,  whereas  with  the  departmental 
system  this  cannot  occur.  I have  to  thank  Sir  Alfred  Jones  for  the 
help  he  has  given  from  time  to  time.  As  to  the  Natal  Railways,  the 
figures  I gave  were  simply  the  best  that  I could  obtain,  and  they  do 
not  seem  far  wrong.  The  railways  may  have  been  reconstructed 
since  the  first  opening  ; the  fact  remains  that  their  present  excellence 
entailed  an  expenditure  of  a large  amount  per  mile.  I will  now  ask 
you  to  give  a hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  for 
liis  kindness  in  presiding  at  this  meeting. 

The  Chairman  responded,  and  the  proceedings  terminated. 


MARCH. 


ANNALS 


1899. 


OF  THF 

AMERICAN  ACADEMY 

OF 

POLITICAL  AND  SOCIAL  SCIENCE. 


THE  REGULATION  AND  NATIONALIZATION  OF 
THE  SWISS"  RAILWAY^*'"  "" 


The  Origin  of  the  Law  of  i8g 2. — Introduction  of  the  System 
of  Private  Railways. 


During  the  period  from  1813  to  1848  Switzerland  was  a 
loose  confederacy  of  small,  almost  entirely  independent, 
states,  whose  central  government  possessed  no  original 
powers  over  internal  affairs.  It  is  clear  that  such  political 
conditions  were  highly  unfavorable  for  the  projection  of 
great  public  works  whose  compass  would  extend  far  beyond 
the  limits  of  individual  cantons.  Indeed,  the  thirties  and 
forties  were  continually  occupied  with  political  struggles 
and  disturbances  which  absorbed  both  the  energy  of  the 
country  and  the  attention  of  the  government.  We  can 
understand  why  the  development  of  railways  began  much 
later  in  Switzerland  than  in  most  other  European  states 
if  we  remember  that  the  country  was  poor  in  natural 
resources,  that  trade  and  industry  were  confined  to  a few 
municipal  cantons,  and  that  climate  and  soil  offered  serious 

* Translated  from  the  German  by  B.  H.  Meyer,  Ph.  D.,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

[143] 


2 


Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 


obstacles  to  railway  construction,  technically  but  imper- 
fectly developed.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  first  railway 
was  not  opened  until  June  15,  1844,  this  was  a line, 
1.8  kilometers  long,  from  Bale  to  the  French  boundary 
at  St.  Louis.  Three  years  later,  in  1847,  followed  the 
Northern  Railroad,  from  Zurich  into  Baden,  with  a length 
of  23.3  kilometers. 

In  1848,  the  federal  constitution  was  so  revised  as  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  age,  and  a firm  central  govern- 
ment placed  over  the  cantons.  Although  the  sovereignty 
of  the  cantons  remained  unimpaired  the  central  government 
was  entrusted  with  a number  of  important  powers.  Article 
21  of  this  constitution  provides  that: 

“The  federation  shall  have  power,  in  the  interests  of  the  Eidge- 
nossenschaft  or  of  a large  part  of  the  same,  to  erect  or  to  aid  in 
the  erection  of  public  works  at  the  expense  of  the  Eidgenossen- 
schaft. 

“The  federation  is  also  authorized  to  exercise  the  right  of  expro- 
priation, full  compensation  being  given.  Detailed  provisions^ 
concerning  expropriation  are  reserved  for  federal  legislation. 

“The  federal  assembly  may  prohibit  the  erection  of  public  works 
which  prejudice  the  military  interests  of  the  Eidgenossenschaftd* 

Upon  the  basis  of  this  article  the  federal  assembly  of  1849 
requested  the  Bundesrat  to  submit  to  it  data  upon  the  follow- 
ing propositions: 

1.  A plan  for  a general  Swiss  railway  network,  and  on  consulta- 
tion with  disinterested  experts,  a plan  for  undertaking  the  prelimi- 
nary technical  work. 

2.  An  outline  of  a federal  law  concerning  expropriation  for  Swis& 
railway  construction. 

3.  Opinions  and  propositions  relating  to  the  participation  of  the 
federation  in  the  construction  of  a Swiss  railway  network. 

It  was  the  prime  motive  of  the  federal  assembly  to  pro- 
vide for  the  systematic  and  energetic  building  of  railways 
in  Switzerland,  leaving  open  the  question  whether  the  state 
or  private  individuals  should  undertake  the  task. 


Nationalization  of  Swiss  Railways. 


3 


The  Bundesraf"  did  as  requested.  It  ordered  exhaustive 
opinions  to  be  elaborated  on  the  technical  and  financial 
basis  of  railway  construction,  and  for  this  purpose  called 
two  eminent  authorities  from  England,  Robert  Stephenson 
and  Henry  Swinburne. 

Meanwhile  the  Bundesrat  itself  brought  before  the  coun- 
cils an  expropriation  law,  the  federal  law  concerning 
liabilities  for  the  surrender  of  private  rights,  which  went 
into  effect  on  May  i,  1850,  and  which  has  remained  in 
force  unchanged  till  the  present  time.  Article  i of  this  law 
stipulates  that 

“when  in  accordance  with  Article  21  of  the  federal  constitution 
public  works  are  erected  on  the  account  of  the  federation,  or  when 
the  application  of  this  federal  law  to  other  public  works  has  been 
decreed  by  the  federal  assembly,  everybody  shall  be  in  duty  bound,  in 
so  far  as  such  public  works  may  necessitate  the  same,  to  cede  his 
property  or  other  rights  to  immovables,  temporarily  or  permanently, 
in  return  for  full  compensation.” 

This  article  contains  the  essentials  of  the  law,  which,  in 
addition,  regulates  numerous  questions  of  detail  and  pro- 
cedure that  find  their  application  in  the  execution  of  the 
law  on  expropriation.  With  this  the  foundation  for  Swiss 
railway  legislation  has  been  laid;  for,  as  we  shall  see 
below,  the  expropriation  law  was  soon  declared  applicable 
to  railway  building  in  a generally  binding  form. 

During  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  (1850)  the  experts 
submitted  their  report.  The  technical  opinions  elaborated 
by  the  two  Englishmen  contained  a plan  for  a Swiss  railway 
system,  650  kilometers  in  length,  and  recommended  the 
execution  of  the  same  by  the  state.  The  experts  on  finance 
believed  likewise  that  a Swiss  railway  system  could  not  be 
brought  into  existence  without  the  co-operation  of  the  state, 
but  they  were  divided  in  their  opinions  as  to  the  form 

* The  Bundesrat  is  the  federal  executive.  It  is  a committee  chosen  by  the  federal 
assembly  in  joint  session.  The  federal  assembly  is  composed  of  two  chambers, 
Nationalrat  and  Stdnderat  (national  council  and  council  of  states),  which  are 
frequently  spoken  of  collectively  as  “ Rate"  (councils). — Translator. 

[145] 


4 


Annai^  of  the  American  Academy. 


which  this  co-operation  should  take.  One  proposed  build- 
ing through  the  joint  agency  of  the  federation  and  the 
cantons;  the  other,  building  by  private  individuals  with  a 
guarantee  of  a certain  minimum  revenue  by  the  state. 

Based  upon  these  preliminary  estimates,  the  Ihmdcsrat 
brought  a draft  of  a railway  law  before  the  federal  assembly 
in  1851.  This  law  provided  for  the  building  of  the  network 
of  railways,  proposed  by  the  technical  experts,  through  the 
joint  agency  of  the  federation  and  cantons,  although  the 
Bundcsrat  asserts  in  its  message*  that  it  would  have  pre- 
ferred building  by  the  federation  alone  had  it  not  been 
restrained  by  financial  considerations.  The  pecuniary  re- 
sources and  revenues  of  the  federation  were  extremely 
limited,  and  it  was  thought  at  this  time  that  the  operation 
of  railways  would  certainly  involve  a deficit.  It  was  for 
this  reason  that  the  Bimdes7'at  proposed  that  the  designa- 
tion of  the  projected  lines  and  the  determination  of  the 
conditions  under  which  these  should  be  built  and  operated 
within  the  domain  of  the  Eidgeiiossenschaft  should  be  left 
to  the  federation  (Art.  i);  while  the  construction  itself  and 
operation  should  be  the  joint  undertaking  of  the  federation 
and  of  the  cantons  (Art.  7).  This  participation  was  planned 
in  such  a manner  that  the  requisite  funds  were  to  be  raised 
by  issuing  Swiss  railway  partialsf  upon  which  the  federa- 
tion was  to  guarantee  a certain  minimum  rate  of  interest, 
while  the  cantons  were  to  reimburse  the  federation,  to 
the  extent  of  two-thirds,  for  whatever  contributions  it 
might  be  compelled  to  make  in  consequence  of  the  interest 
guaranty.  Naturally  Jonly  those  cantons  would  have  been 
drawn  into  account  which  were  touched  by  the  railway  in 
question.  Any  surplus  above  the  guaranteed  interest  was  to 
be  participated  in  by  the  holders  of  the  partial  obligations. 

* Propositions  relating  to  laws  and  resolutions,  which  the  Bundesrat  submits  to 
the  federal  assembly,  are  regularly  accompanied  by  an  explanatory  report,  called 
a message,  Botschaft. 

t Partials  or  partial  obligations  are  bonds  divided  into  parts  and  supplied  with 
continuous  numbers.  Brockhaus’  “ Conversations- Lexicon." — Translator. 

[146] 


Nationai^ization  of  Swiss  Raiways. 


5 


The  administration  of  every  individual  enterprise  was  to 
be  undertaken  by  an  administrative  council,  elected  in 
part  by  the  federation  and  in  part  by  the  cantons,  and 
which  was  to  have  appointed  a tolerably  independent  direc- 
tor}^ for  current  business.  Provisions  were  also  made  for 
concentrating  several  different  enterprises  under  one 
administration  or  directory.  In  addition,  there  was  to  be 
created  a permanent  commission,  elected  by  the  federation, 
for  the  revision  of  the  accounts  of  all  the  railways. 

Both  the  national  council  and  the  council  of  states  re- 
ferred this  bill  to  commissions  for  criticisms  and  opinions. 
The  national  council  received  its  report  first.  This  com- 
mission was  divided  in  its  opinions.  The  majority  sup- 
ported the  point  of  view  of  the  Bundesrat  but  went  even 
farther  and  gave  a less  qualified  sanction  to  the  idea  of  state 
control  in  railway  matters.  The  minority  desired  to  leave 
railway  matters  with  the  cantons  or  private  individuals. 

The  majority,  whose  report  was  a lengthy  and  excellently 
written  defence  of  the  state  railway  system,  advocated  the 
following  postulates:  (i)  railway  transportation  is  a state 
business,  and  the  state  should  raise  the  necessary  capital ; 
and  (2)  the  location  and  building  of  the  Swiss  railway  sys- 
tem and  its  organization  for  construction  and  operation  are 
subjects  for  federal  legislation. 

These  claims  were  strongly  supported  upon  economic  and 
political  grounds.  At  the  same  time  the  majority  accom- 
panied the  bill  of  the  Bundesrat  with  the  draft  of  a law 
worked  out  by  its  own  members.  In  accordance  with  this 
scheme  the  establishment  of  the  Swiss  railway  system  and 
its  organization  for  purposes  of  construction  and  operation 
were  to  be  exclusively  the  concern  of  federal  legislation ; 
the  actual  construction  and  operation,  however,  was  to  be 
the  common  business  of  the  federation  and  of  the  partici- 
pating cantons.  The  payment  of  interest  on  the  capital 
stock,  which  was  to  be  raised  by  four  per  cent  federal  loans, 
without  sharing  the  profits  with  bondholders,  was  to  be  borne 

[147] 


6 


Annai^  of  the  American  Academy. 


equally  by  the  federation  and  by  the  cantons.  The  Bund- 
esrat  and  a general  directory  subordinate  to  it  were  to  be 
the  highest  administrative  organ.  The  entire  network  of 
railways  was  to  be  divided  into  six  circuits,  each  under  the 
direction  of  an  administrative  council  of  from  five  to  nine 
members — two  elected  by  the  Dimdcsrat  and  the  others  by 
the  cantons  in  proportion  to  their  participation  in  the  enter- 
prise; and  each  administrative  council  w’as  in  turn  to  elect 
a directory  for  its  circuit. 

The  minority  of  the  commission  attempted  to  refute  the 
arguments  of  the  majority  report  in  favor  of  a state  system 
and  to  prove  that  the  building  of  railways  for  Switzerland 
through  private  means,  without  any  assistance  from  the 
state,  was  not  only  possible  but  extremely  advantageous. 
Tike  the  majority,  the  minority  embodied  its  views  in  the 
form  of  a bill  which  need  not  be  discussed  here  because  it 
formed  the  foundation  for  the  first  railway  law,  the  contents 
of  which  will  be  presented  below. 

The  national  council  decided  in  favor  of  private  enter- 
prise, accepted  the  report  of  the  minority  by  a vote  of  68 
to  22,  on  July  8,  1852. 

In  this  manner  “The  Federal  Law  concerning  the  Con- 
struction and  Operation  of  Railways  in  the  Domain  of  the 
Eidge7iosse7ischaft^''  of  July  28,  1852,  was  enacted.  The 
law  remained  in  force  unchanged  till  1872.  This  interval 
of  twenty  years  may  be  regarded  as  a closed  period  in  the 
history  of  Swdss  railways,  especially  in  the  history  of  the 
relation  of  the  railways  to  the  state.  It  is  characterized  by 
the  supremacy  of  the  cantons  in  railway  affairs.  The 
powers  reserved  to  the  federation  are  very  insignificant. 
But  since  the  cantons  were  small  and  weak  they  soon  real- 
ized tlieir  inability  to  exert  an  appreciable  influence  on  the 
development  of  the  railway  system.  The  companies,  which, 
of  course,  were  organized,  in  the  face  of  the  apprehen- 
sions of  the  majority  of  the  commission  of  the  national 
council,  soon  learned  how  to  withdraw  themselves  from  the 

[14S] 


■ Nationai^ization  of  Swiss  Raii^ways 


7 


guardianship  of  the  cantonal  governments;  but  the  federal 
government,  in  spite  of  its  insignificant  powers,  did  not  lose 
sight  of  them.  In  proportion  as  the  companies  grew  larger 
and  more  influential,  as  the  railway  network  was  enlarged 
and  extended,  as  traffic  increased  in  volume  and  significance 
— which  it  did  at  a rate  that  no  one  had  anticipated — the 
necessity  for  a change  in  federal  legislation  and  for  greater 
supervision  and  participation  in  railway  matters  on  the  part 
of  the  state  increased.  This  development  received  its  last 
complement  in  the  federal  law  of  October  15,  1897,  which 
ordered  the  repurchase  of  the  railways.  It  is  a long  step 
between  the  laws  of  1852  and  1897.  It  is  necessary  to  fol- 
low out  here  the  manner  in  which  the  revolution  in  public 
opinion  with  reference  to  the  relation  of  the  state  to  railways 
was  gradually  brought  about,  in  order  to  show  subsequently 
how  legislation  developed  harmoniously  with  these  changes. 

The  Development  of  the  Idea  of  State  Railways. 

Article  i of  the  railway  law  of  1852  reads: 

“The  construction  and  operation  of  railways  within  the  domain 
of  the  Eidgenossenschaft  is  left  to  the  cantons,  or,  when  suitable, 
to  private  activity.  ’ ’ 

while  Article  i of  the  law  of  October  15,  1897,  says: 

“The  federation  may  purchase  and  operate  on  its  own  account, 
under  the  name  of  ‘Federal  Swiss  Railways,  ’ all  those  Swiss  railways 
which,  because  of  their  economic  or  military  significance,  serve  the 
interests  of  the  Eidgenossenschaft  or  of  the  major  part  of  the  same, 
when  these  can  be  acquired  without  making  disproportionate  sacri- 
fices. ’ ’ 

To  be  sure,  there  were  private  Swiss  railways  before  the 
law  of  1852,  and  such  will  probably  exist  following  that  of 
1897,  because  it  will  be  several  years  before  the  transfer  of 
the  railways  to  the  federation  can  be  made  possible.  Yet 
we  may  designate  the  two  laws  just  cited  as  boundary  posts 
which  mark  off  the  system  of  private  railways. 

ri49] 


8 


Annai^  of  the  American  Academy. 


Tlie  development  of  these  forty-five  years  was  neither 
sudden  nor  spasmodic.  The  idea  of  state  railways  had  suc- 
cumbed, but  it  had  not  been  destroyed.  As  early  as  1857, 
on  the  occasion  of  a report  to  the  Bzmdesrat  relating  to 
Swiss  railways,  the  department  of  post  and  building  inci- 
dentally discussed  the  question  of  repurchase  and  submitted 
the  following  propositions: 

1.  The  repurchase  of  the  Swiss  railways  by  the  federation  is 
desirable  as  a matter  of  principle. 

2.  In  consequence  of  the  above  mentioned  joint  proceedings  this 
repurchase  is  to  be  attempted  immediately ; and,  in  this  case,  pro- 
posals are  to  be  submitted  to  the  companies  in  accordance  with  one 
of  the  three  following  systems : {a)  shareholders  may  exchange  their 
stock  for  government  bonds  bearing  a fixed  rate  of  interest  and  re- 
deemable within  a certain  number  of  years;  {b)  or,  there  may  be 
granted  to  shareholders,  in  addition  to  the  stipulated  rate  of  interest 
on  bonds,  a portion  of  possible  surplus  revenue  for  a definite  num- 
ber of  years;  {c)  or,  instead  of  this  portion  of  the  surplus  revenue 
a fixed  annual  sum,  e.  g. , one-half  per  cent  of  the  total  capital  may 
be  paid  to  shareholders  in  lottery  premium  certificates.* 

3.  There  shall  also  be  kept  in  view,  even  at  the  present  time,  the 
repurchase  of  the  railways  at  the  expiration  of  the  first  period  of 
thirty  years  for  which  charters  have  been  granted,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  following  provisions  shall  be  made:  (a)  there  shall  be 
paid  annually  into  the  federal  treasury  a certain  sum  which  shall 
constitute  a repurchase  and  amortization  fund;  {b)  this  repurchase 
fund  shall  be  applied  to  the  acquisition  of  Swiss  railway  stock 
rather  than  be  put  out  at  interest;  (c)  in  case  of  a possible  general 
fusion  the  federation  shall  strive  to  assume  all  new  stock  which  may 
be  issued. 

This  movement  did  not  make  further  progress.  Its  pur- 
pose appears  to  have  been  accomplished  with  the  conclusion 
of  the  deliberations  of  1852.  The  expectations  of  the 
friends  of  private  railways  were  being  fulfilled  in  a brilliant 

* The  author  uses  the  term  verloosenden  P>'dmien.  These  “ premiums  ” are  obli- 
gations or  bonds  issued  for  loans,  the  payment  oi  interest  upon  as  well  as  the 
amortization  of  which  “ ensues  in  part  or  entirely  in  accordance  with  a definite 
Bcheme  of  drawing  on  the  lottery  plan.”  The  holders  of  these  obligations  are  paid 
off  whenever  the  bond  which  they  own  is  “drawn”  by  lot.  Compare  Brockhaus’ 
“ Lexicon."— Translator. 


[150] 


Nation AuzATioN  of  Swiss  Raiways. 


9 


manner.  In  a few  years  there  came  into  existence  an  ex- 
tensive network  of  railways  which  overspread  nearly  the 
whole  country,  and  which  was  much  more  dense  than  the 
system  of  state  roads  that  the  federation  had  originally  pro- 
jected. 

The  first  vigorous  voice  which  again  was  raised  in  behalf 
of  a state  system  was  that  of  Stampfli,  president  of  the  federa- 
tion, who,  in  1862,  in  a pamphlet  which  attracted  an  extra- 
ordinary amount  of  attention,  advocated  the  repurchase  of 
the  railways  by  voluntary  agreement  with  the  companies. 
As  early  as  1857 — and  this  is  but  little  known — Stampfli 
had  presented  a memorial  to  the  Bundesrat  in  which  he  ex- 
plicitly supported  repurchase.  This  body,  however,  gave 
no  support  to  his  propositions. 

Stampfli,  well  known  later  as  president  of  the  tribunal  of 
arbitration  in  the  Alabama  claims  of  the  United  States 
against  Great  Britain,  maintained  that  the  existing  railway 
conditions  were  unsound  and  that  the  excessive  scattering 
of  energy  was  injurious  to  society,  to  the  public  and  to  the 
state.  He  declared,  however, 

“in  order  to  avoid  every  possible  misunderstanding,”  that  “be- 
cause of  the  nature  of  existing  charters  repurchase  is  possible  only 
by  means  of  voluntary  agreements,  and  that  no  other  method  has 
entered  my  mind.  ’ ’ 

Yet  such  a repurchase  was  to  be  attempted  forthwith.  It 
is  true,  Stampfli ’s  voice,  which  was  persistently  interpreted 
as  a purely  private  utterance,  died  away  without  any  direct 
results;  but  the  impression  which  his  keen  project  had 
made  and  the  authority  which  the  great  statesman  justly 
enjoyed,  long  remained  so  influential  that  every  movement 
in  behalf  of  nationalization  was  attached  to  Stampfli’s  name, 
and  every  possibility  of  repurchase  according  to  charter 
provisions  appeared  to  be  excluded  for  all  future  time.  As 
a matter  of  fact,  no  serious  proposition  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  nationalization  on  the  basis  of  the  respective  char- 
ter provisions  was  made  until  the  year  1897,  when  the  idea 

[151] 


lO 


Annals  of  the  American  Academy, 


was  realized.  The  state  became  only  gradually  con.scious 
of  the  advantages  which  had  been  placed  in  its  hands  when 
it  had  been  authorized  to  legislate  for  repurchase  in  accord- 
ance with  charter  provisions. 

Stiimpfli  made  nationalization  a positive  quantity.  Ilis 
pamphlet  shortly  called  forth  a series  of  replies,  which  he 
met  in  a second  edition.  His  ideas  also  found  independent 
supporters  who  sought  to  elaborate  his  views  and  to  give 
them  a more  practical  form. 

Meanwhile  the  period  of  excessive  zeal  for  the  extension 
and  development  of  the  Swiss  railway  system  had  been  fol- 
lowed by  a season  of  business  depression,  a general  railway 
crisis,  which  affected  not  only  all  railway  companies  but 
also  the  financial  interest  of  most  remote  .sections  of  the 
country.  During  this  critical  period  the  eyes  of  many 
were  once  more  turned  toward  the  state,  and  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  railways  by  the  federation — be  this  by  way 
of  agreement  or  of  expropriation  (Dietler,  1877),  or  even  in 
the  form  of  state  operation  with  private  ownership 
(Zschokke,  1877) — was  again  characterized  as  the  safest 
way  out  of  the  then  existing  unhealthy  conditions  in  rail- 
way affairs.  It  can  furthermore  not  be  doubted  that  if  the 
state,  during  this  period  of  depression,  had  followed  the 
advice  of  experienced  and  far-sighted  men  and  acquired  the 
most  important  lines  of  railways,  it  would  have  come  into 
possession  of  a great  network  on  remarkably  favorable 
terms. 

The  state  did  not  venture  to  take  this  step.  The  notion 
of  state  railways  had  not  yet  struck  root  either  in  the  lead- 
ing circles  or  among  the  masses.  The  political  ideas 
obtaining  at  that  time  did  not  tend  toward  a considerable 
increase  of  the  federal  power;  likewise  the  economic  views 
of  the  times  were  overwhelmingly  averse  to  increased  state 
interference  in  industrial  matters.  For  this  reason,  on  June 
6,  1877,  council  of  states  rejected  a bill  which  provided 
as  follows; 

[152J 


Nationalization  of  Swiss  Railways. 


II 


“The  Bundesrat  is  requested  to  subject  the  question  of  what,  if 
any,  changes  are  to  be  made  in  the  existing  railway  legislation  in 
the  light  of  recent  experiences  in  Switzerland,  to  an  exhaustive 
investigation ; and  in  case  the  Bundesrat  should  conclude  that 
public  interests  demand  a modification  of  the  laws,  it  is  requested 
to  accompany  its  report  by  a suitable  bill.  ’ ’ 

On  June  19,  the  council  of  states  approved  the  following 
motion : 

Bundesrat  is  requested  to  order  an  investigation  which 
may  determine  whether  in  view  of  past  experiences  and  of  the 
present  state  of  affairs  it  is  expedient  for  the  federal  government 
to  inaugurate  reforms  in  Swiss  railway  affairs.  ’ ’ 

There  was  a lack  of  courage  and  confidence.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  railway  companies  appeared  to  be  too  critical 
and  hazardous  to  make  it  desirable  to  put  the  federation  in 
their  place.  It  was  thought  that  enough  had  been  done 
through  the  laws  of  1874  concerning  railway  mortgages  and 
forced  sales,  the  transportation  law  of  1875,  the  adoption  of 
uniform  transportation  regulations  in  1876,  and  the  law  of 
1878  relating  to  the  subvention  of  Alpine  railways.  The 
reorganization  of  the  Swiss  railways  was  left  to  private 
initiative  and  private  capital  just  as  had  been  done  twenty- 
five  years  earlier  when  the  first  railways  were  built. 

It  can  not  be  said  that  people  were  deceived  in  their  ex- 
pectations. Thanks  to  the  strenuous  endeavors  of  adminis- 
trative officials,  the  manifold  support  of  foreign  capital,  and 
the  favorable  influence  of  the  Gothard  Railway  which  had 
meanwhile  been  opened  for  traffic,  an  improvement  in  the 
conditions  of  most  of  the  railways  was  perceptible  in  a rela- 
tively short  time. 

After  the  Bundesrat  had  relinquished,  in  1877,  repur- 
chase on  the  basis  of  voluntary  agreements  or  by  means  of 
expropriation  legislation,  it  was  soon  confronted  by  the 
question  as  to  what  attitude  it  should  take  toward  the 
repurchase  of  a number  of  railways  whose  charter  limits 
-expired  on  May  i,  1883. 

[153] 


12 


Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 


A thorough  examination  of  the  circumstances,  inspired 
perhaps  still  by  the  influence  of  Stiimpfli,  convinced  the 
Bimdesj'at  that  it  was  not  best  to  take  advantage  of  its  right 
of  giving  notice  of  intent  to  purchase  at  this  time.  * In  the 
message  that  accompanied  this  resolution  when  it  was  sub- 
mitted for  the  approval  of  the  councils,  the  Bundesrat  very 
urgently  called  attention  to  the  difflculties  involved  in  the 
repurchase  of  railways  according  to  charter  provisions.  It 
pointed  out,  especially,  the  indeflniteness  of  the  two  funda- 
mental notions,  “capital  stock”  {A ulagekapiia/)  and  “net 
profits”  {Remertrag'),  and  the  impossibility  of  accepting  the 
accounts  of  the  railway  companies  as  a basis  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  purchasing  price. 

The  council  of  states  approved  the  resolution  of  the 
Bimdcsrat  on  April  4;  and  the  national  council  did  the  same 
on  the  twenty-first  of  the  same  month,  although  it  did  so 
by  a vote  of  only  67  to  59.  Indeed,  the  majority  of  the 
commission,  to  which  the  investigation  had  been  entrusted, 
reported  in  favor  of  the  purchase  of  at  least  the  Swiss  Cen- 
tral Railroad  and  its  associated  lines. 

This  momentous  problem  of  repurchase  was  not  yet 
thought  to  be  sufiBciently  clarified  to  be  solved  in  the 
affirmative  contrary  to  the  best  judgment  of  the  Bundesrat 
But  apart  from  this,  economic  and  political  doubts  concern- 
ing the  principle  of  state  railways  were  yet  so  strong  that 
the  council  of  states  would  hardly  have  given  its  approval 
to  a resolution  of  the  national  council  in  favor  of  nationali- 
zation. The  proceedings  in  this  matter  brought  to  light 
very  clearly  the  fact  that  the  rank  and  file  of  those  who 
were  fundamentally  opposed  to  a state  railway  system  had 
become  more  enlightened.  Hereafter,  men  scarcely  dared 
openly  to  announce  themselves  as  unqualified  opponents  of 
a state  system,  but  rather  strove  to  push  the  practical  diflS- 
culties  into  the  foreground,  and  thus  make  it  unnecessary 
for  them  to  commit  themselves  on  the  question  of  principle. 

* Federal  resolution  of  March  6,  1883. 

[154] 


Nationai^ization  of  Swiss  Raiways.  13 

This  gradual  change  in  opinion  was  naturally  intimately 
associated  with  the  contemporaneous  change  of  views  con- 
cerning the  relation  of  the  state  to  the  public  economy. 
The  statesmen  and  politicians  of  the  year  1883  were  even 
then  inclined  to  extend  the  activity  of  the  state  much 
farther  than  would  have  been  considered  admissible  thirty 
years  previous.  Faith  in  the  superiority  of  absolute  free- 
dom of  the  individual  in  the  domain  of  economic  phenomena, 
which  had  been  considered  the  inseparable  correlate  of 
political  freedom,  had  been  greatly  shattered.  Men  had 
begun  to  reconcile  themselves  to  the  interference  of  the 
state  in  all  spheres  of  practical  life.  The  activity  of  the 
state  in  promoting  trade  and  the  public  defence,  agricul- 
ture, industry  and  especially  labor,  education  and  sanita- 
tion; in  regulating  and  correcting  the  flow  of  water  in 
meadow  and  mountain;  in  extending  streets  and  Alpine 
paths,  and  the  telegraph  and  postal  service;  and,  last, 
but  not  least,  the  extended  powers  which  the  state  already 
possessed  in  the  domain  of  railway  transportation — ^about 
which  more  will  be  said  below — no  longer  permitted  the 
transfer  of  the  railways  into  the  hands  of  the  state  to 
appear  as  an  innovation  having  deep  and  fundamental 
signiflcance.  Only  the  practical  question  how  was  left 
unanswered. 

Of  course,  the  attitude  of  foreign  countries  toward  rail- 
way problems  was  not  unnoticed  and  it  created  a lively  im- 
pression and  lasting  influence  on  the  views  of  influential 
persons  and  on  the  opinions  of  the  people  of  Switzerland. 
It  was  during  these  years  that  a strong  tendency  toward 
nationalization  of  railways  asserted  itself  over  the  entire 
European  continent. 

Belgium,  which  had  accepted  the  principle  of  state  roads 
at  the  outset,  but  had  subsequently,  for  reasons  of  expedi- 
ency, left  the  extension  of  its  railway  network  to  private 
activity,  carried  out  most  vigorously  the  policy  of  repur- 
chase from  1870  to  1880.  Of  the  total  mileage  of  Belgian 

[155] 


14  Annates  of  thk  Amkrican  Acadkmy. 

railways  in  1870  there  were  in  the  hands  of  the  state  about 
43.5  per  cent,  or  745  kilometers;  in  1880  this  had  increased 
to  65^  per  cent,  or  2568  kilometers;  and  in  1888  it 
reached  72^  per  cent,  or  3200  kilometers. 

In  Prussia  the  nationalization  of  railways  was  vigorously 
prosecuted  after  the  year  1876.  PVom  this  date  to  1890  the 
state  acquired  about  14,000  kilometers  of  private  roads; 
and  of  these  upwards  of  10,000  kilometers  were  taken  be- 
tween 1876  and  1884. 

Austria,  which  at  one  time  had  shifted  from  state  to 
private  operation,  likewise  changed  its  railway  policy  dur- 
ing this  period;  and,  by  enacting  the  law  of  December  14, 
1877,  inaugurated  a new  epoch  of  state  railways.  By  the 
close  of  1879  the  state  had  acquired  950  kilometers  of 
private  roads.  At  the  end  of  1892  this  network  had  been  in- 
creased to  7581  kilometers,  partly  by  the  purchase  of  ex- 
isting railways,  partly  by  building  new  lines  and  partly  by 
the  of  operation  private  roads. 

Hungary,  whose  state  system  embraced  603  kilometers 
in  1872  and  twenty  years  later  9810  kilometers,  pursued  a 
similar  policy. 

In  France,  after  protracted  debates,  in  1877,  legisla- 
ture authorized  the  government  to  purchase  a number  of 
lines,  mostly  suffering  ones.  A S5^stem  of  2615  kilometers 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  state  in  1878. 

Likewise  the  countries  bordering  Switzerland  on  the  north 
— Baden,  Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria — possessed  a part  of  their 
railways  from  the  first,  and  they  changed  over  to  a state 
system  during  this  same  period. 

These  events  must  have  exerted  a strong  influence  in 
Switzerland.  They  did  not  permit  the  movement  toward 
nationalization  to  come  to  a halt.  The  movement  also 
gained  a powerful  friend  in  Welti,  for  many  years  the 
director  of  the  department  of  railways  and  a member  of  the 
Ihindesrat.  He  used  his  influential  position  with  much 
eflect  to  promote  the  policy  of  nationalization. 

[156] 


Nationai^ization  of  Swiss  Railways. 


15 


Atiempts  at  Nationalizatioyi  previous  to  i8gy. 

Since  repurchase  in  accordance  with  charter  provisions 
was  considered  too  difficult,  the  Bu7idesrat  attempted  to 
approach  the  desired  aim  by  way  of  voluntary  purchases. 
During  December,  1887,  the  Bundesrat  consummated  an 
agreement  for  the  purchase  of  the  Northeast  Railroad.  In 
accordance  with  this  agreement  the  Northeast  Railroad 
Company  was  to  cede  to  the  federation  all  its  movable  and 
immovable  property  and  receive  in  return,  at  their  nominal 
value,  Swiss  {eidgenossischeTi)  bonds  bearing  3^  per  cent 
interest,  at  the  rate  of  600  francs  for  each  preferred  share 
and  500  francs  for  every  common  share.  The  general 
meeting  of  shareholders  ratified  the  agreement  but  demanded 
additional  concessions,  apparently  of  little  significance.  The 
Bundesrat^  however,  seized  upon  this  opportunity  to  with- 
draw from  the  negotiations,  presumably  because  of  its 
solicitude  about  securing  a majority  vote  in  the  federal 
assembly. 

A few  years  later  they  went  one  step  farther  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Jura-Simplon  Railroad.  After  the  Buiidesrat 
had  reserved  for  itself  the  right,  when  the  fusion  of  the 
Suisse  occidentale  and  the  Jura-Bern-Luzern  railway  compa- 
nies had  been  brought  about,  to  exempt  all  shares  which  it 
might  eventually  possess  from  the  restriction  on  voting  in 
the  general  meeting  (according  to  Swiss  law  not  more  than 
one-fifth  of  the  whole  number  of  votes  can  be  concentrated 
in  the  same  shareholder)  it  resolved,  in  1890,  to  purchase 
30,000  preferred  shares  of  the  above  company,  which  were 
at  that  time  owned  by  the  canton  of  Bern.  The  purchas- 
ing price  amounted  to  600  francs  (per  share  of  500  fr.),  i.  e. , 
120  per  cent,  payable  in  3 per  cent  bonds  quoted  at  90. 
Similar  purchases  were  repeated,  so  that  by  the  close  of  1891 
the  federation  possessed  77,090  preferred  shares  of  the 
Jura-Simplon  Railroad.  Financially  the  result  was  not 

[157] 


1 6 Annai^  of  the  American  Academy. 

favorable,  and  the  anticipated  influence  on  tlie  authorities 
of  the  Jura-Simplon  Railroad  was  not  secured;  consequently 
no  additional  purchases  of  this  stock  were  made  after 
1891. 

A third  trial  was  made  with  the  Central  Railroad.  The 
Bundes7'at  negotiated  at  first  with  an  association  of  share- 
holders of  the  company  concerning  the  cession  of  a large 
installment  of  stock,  and  later  with  the  directory  itself  for 
the  purchase  of  the  entire  railway.  In  June,  1891,  the 
federal  assembly  empowered  the  Biuidcsrat  to  execute  a 
contract  for  the  transfer  of  the  Central  Railroad  at  a price 
of  1000  francs  for  every  share  of  500  francs  payable  in  3 per 
cent  bonds  quoted  at  par.  However,  these  terms  seemed  so 
unfavorable  for  the  federation  that  the  referendum  was 
resorted  to,  and,  on  December  6,  1891,  the  contract  was 
rejected  at  the  polls  by  a large  majority. 

These  consequences  demonstrated  more  clearly  than  had  at 
first  been  assumed  that  not  only  a certain  aversion  to  the 
principle  of  nationalization  but  also,  and  much  more,  the 
special  conditions  of  a concrete  case  condemned  the  bill. 

As  early  as  January  29,  1892,  the  federal  assembly 
passed  a resolution  requesting  the  Bundesrat  to  institute 
a comprehensive  investigation  of  the  railway  problems 
(railway  reform  and  railway  repurchase)  and  to  submit  a 
report,  accompanied  by  a bill,  on  the  ways  and  means  by 
which  to  proceed. 

The  outcome  of  this  investigation,  which  the  Bundesrat 
soon  took  in  hand,  was  the  accounting  law  (^Rech7iu7igs- 
gesetz)  submitted  November  2,  1895.  The  Bu7idesrat  had 
reached  the  conclusion  that  the  accomplishment  of  national- 
ization was  desirable,  that  the  next  possible  opportunity  for 
repurchase  in  accordance  with  charter  provision  in  1903 
was  preferable,  but  that  existing  laws  were  inadequate  for 
thesolution  of  preliminary  problems,  such  as  the  determina- 
tion of  the  price,  etc.,  and  that  therefore  they  must  be 
amended. 


[158] 


NATIONAI.IZATION  OF  SwiSS  RAII.WAYS.  1 7 

This  accounting  law  is  the  last  link  in  a long  chain  of 
legislative  enactments  through  which  the  relation  of  the 
state  to  the  railways  has  been  gradually  modified  in  the 
direction  of  increased  state  influence.  The  laws  are  an 
expression  of  the  gradual  development  of  the  idea  of  state 
railways.  Nearly  all  these  laws,  except  the  last  and  the  most 
decisive  one,  were  passed  without  appreciable  opposition, 
and  this  is  proof  that  their  tendency  on  the  whole  ran  par- 
allel with  the  transformation  of  public  opinion  on  the 
economic  functions  of  the  state.  When  finally  the  last  step, 
the  change  to  the  state  system,  was  to  be  taken,  it  was 
found  that  the  way  had  long  been  prepared. 

Guided  by  this  legislation  we  may  now  study  the  relation 
of  the  state  to  railway  companies  up  to  the  time  of  the 
enactment  of  the  repurchase  act. 


Railway  Legislation  from  i8y2  to  i8y2. 

The  expropriation  law  of  1850  has  already  been  men- 
tioned. It  was  the  first  revSult  of  the  task  which  the  federal 
assembly  had  assigned  to  the  Bundesrat^  and  which  was 
discussed  above. 

The  next  and  most  important  consequence  of  the  same 
report  was  the  “Federal  Law  Concerning  the  Building  and 
Operation  of  Railways  in  the  Domain  of  the  Eidgenossen- 
schaftf  of  July  28,  1852.  It  was  modeled,  as  has  already 
been  stated,  after  the  minority  report  of  the  commission  of 
the  national  council.  The  following  were  the  essential 
contents  of  this  law : 

The  building  and  operation  of  railways  in  the  domain  of 
Eidgenossenschaft  is  reserved  to  the  cantons,  or  to  private 
activity. 

Charters  for  railway  enterprises  emanate  from  the 
cantons,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  federation  through 
the  agency  of  the  federal  assembly  (Art.  18). 

[159] 


1 8 Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 

The  federation  must  grant  this  approval  if  the  projected 
enterprise  does  not  prejudice  the  military  interests  of  the 
Eidgenossenschaft.  But  it  has  the  power  to  decide  whether 
this  is  the  case  or  not.  So  far  as  the  author  knows,  it  has 
never  happened  that  railway  charters  have  been  refused  for 
purely  military  reasons,  even  though  apprehensions  of  this 
nature  have  repeatedly  been  uttered  in  discussions  on  appli- 
cations for  charters. 

The  law,  however,  makes  the  granting  of  charters  depend 
upon  the  fulfillment  in  favor  of  the  EidgcJiossejischaft  of 
certain  conditions  relating  to  the  administration  of  the  postal 
system,  the  telegraph  and  the  army.  They  are  the  follow- 
ing : (i ) Raihvays  are  bound  to  transport  free  of  charge  letters 
and  sealed  packages  up  to  a weight  of  5 kilograms.  Like- 
Vv^ise  railway  post-ofiices  and  postal  clerks  must  be  carried 
gratis.  (2)  Railways  are  required  to  permit  the  establishment 
of  telegraph  lines  along  the  railways  without  compensation, 
to  direct  and  supervise  the  construction  and  the  more  im- 
portant repairs  of  such  lines  through  their  own  engineers, 
and  b}^  means  of  their  own  staff  to  make  lesser  repairs  and 
to  maintain  the  line.  (3)  Railways  are  compelled  to  trans- 
port the  EidgeyiossenschafVs  army  and  accoutrements  of  war 
at  one-half  of  the  lowest  regular  rates. 

In  addition,  the  Bundesrat  reserved  the  right  to  declare  a 
charter  null  and  void  if  the  work  of  grading  was  not  begun 
within  a specified  time  and  proof  given  of  the  company’s 
ability  to  execute  the  work  in  a proper  manner.  It  also 
reserved  the  right  to  prescribe  regulations  that  might  be 
necessary  to  insure  the  technical  unity  of  the  Swiss  railway 
system.  The  Bundesrat  further  reserved  the  right  to  decide 
disputes  among  railway  companies  over  the  manner  of 
making  junctions  with  one  another.  The  law  provided 
that  every  railway  company  should  be  in  duty  bound  to 
permit  the  establishing  of  convenient  junctions,  without 
the  company  requiring  the  rates  of  the  roads  making  the 
junctions  to  be  kept  at  a lower  level  in  its  favor. 

[160] 


Nationai^ization  of  Swiss  Railways. 


19 


Finally  the  Bmidesrat  reserved  the  power  to  participate  in 
the  negotiations  between  the  cantonal  governments  and  pri- 
vate parties  concerning  the  granting  of  charters,  which  right 
it  has,  however,  never  exercised,  because  the  law  did  not 
accord  to  it  a dominant  position  in  these  negotiations.  In 
case  a canton  should  attempt  to  prevent  or  to  make  more 
difficult  the  construction  of  a railway  of  importance  to  the 
public,  the  federal  assembly  was  empowered  to  interfere  of  its 
own  accord  and  to  order  what  seemed  necessary.  It  is  not 
very  clear  just  what  was  to  be  understood  by  the  “neces- 
sary” which,  under  such  circumstances,  the  federal  assem- 
bly was  empowered  to  order;  and  it  is  at  least  very 
doubtful  whether  the  establishment  of  railways  by  the 
Eidgenossenschaft  was  intended. 

As  compensation  for  these  responsibilities  the  railways 
were  empowered  to  apply  the  expropriation  law  of  1850 
everywhere  in  the  domain  of  the  Eidgenossenschaft ; besides 
they  were  to  be  allowed  to  import  for  a period  of  ten  years, 
free  of  duty,  rails  and  other  materials  required  in  railway 
construction,  such  as  wheels,  axles,  locomotives  and  coal. 

The  law  was  not  sufficiently  precise  in  such  important 
provisions  as  those  relating  to  repurchase.  It  was  content 
with  retaining  the  possibility  of  repurchase  by  the  Eidgenos- 
senschaft and  postponed  to  a subsequent  date  the  adoption  of 
specific  terms.  Article  14  of  the  law  provided  that 

“the  time  limits  at  the  expiration  of  which  the  federation  may 
purchase  for  full  compensation  the  railway  in  question,  together 
with  the  material  and  supplies  belonging  thereto,  and  the  terms 
upon  which  repurchase  may  take  place,  shall  be  determined  from 
time  to  time  and  for  each  case  by  itself.  ” 

It  was  clear  that  the  federal  assembly  would  soon  be  forced 
to  take  a stand  on  this  question  of  charters.  As  a matter 
of  fact,  during  the  very  session  in  which  the  railway  law 
was  enacted  a series  of  cantonal  charters  were  introduced 
for  its  approval. 


[161] 


20 


Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 


These  bills  related  to  railways  that  had  been  chartered  by 
the  authorities  of  the  cantons  of  St.  Gallen,  Thurgau, 
Waadt  and  Luzern.  During  the  discussion  on  the  applica- 
tions for  these  charters  the  friends  and  foes  of  a state  .sys- 
tem contended  with  vigor.  Some  sought  to  incorporate  in 
the  resolutions  approving  the  charters  provisions  which 
would  make  it  easy  and  advantageous  for  the  state  to  re- 
purchase the  railways;  others  took  pains  to  give  the  longest 
possible  life  to  the  system  which  they  had  only  recently 
created. 

Various  bills  designed  to  solve  these  difficult  problems 
were  brought  before  the  federal  assembly.  The  Bundesrat 
proposed  to  fix  the  terms  of  repurchase  in  the  following 
manner; 

“ The  federation  shall  have  power  to  acquire,  for  full  compensa- 
tion, all  railways,  together  with  the  materials,  buildings  and  sup- 
plies belonging  thereto,  after  the  twentieth  year  of  the  operation 
of  the  same,  and  on  giving  the  respective  railway  companies  one 
year’s  notice.” 

But  the  federation  could  not  make  use  of  this  right  before 
the  expiration  of  the  charter  period,  which  was  fixed  at 
ninety-nine  years. 

The  amount  of  compensation  was  to  be  ascertained  ex- 
clusively on  the  basis  of  {a)  the  average  net  profits  of  the 
road  during  the  last  twenty  years;  {b)  the  original  capital 
stock  of  the  road  and  of  its  dependent  lines;  {c)  the  esti- 
mated sum  which  the  construction  and  equipment  of  the  road 
would  cost  at  the  time  of  purchase. 

From  the  sums  paid  by  virtue  of  b and  c a reasonable 
deduction  was  to  be  made  as  an  allowance  for  the  past  wear 
and  tear  of  the  railway.  Should  the  federation  desire  to 
exercise  its  right  of  repurchase  before  the  expiration  of  the 
charter  limits — that  is,  between  the  twentieth  and  ninety- 
ninth  years — then  the  price  was  to  be  advanced  ten  percent. 
When  an  agreement  between  the  federation  and  a railway 

[162] 


Nation Ai^izATiON  of  Swiss  Railways. 


21 


company  could  not  be  reached,  a court  of  arbitration  was 
finally  to  fix  the  purchase  price  on  the  basis  outlined  above. 

The  council  of  states  first  deliberated  upon  the  bill,  and, 
with  unessential  modifications,  approved  the  scheme  of  the 
Bundesrat.  The  national  council,  on  the  other  hand, 
engaged  in  a lively  discussion  which  finally  led  to  the 
adoption  of  the  following  repurchase  clauses: 

1.  The  federation  shall  have  power  to  repurchase  a railway  at  the 
termination  of  the  thirtieth,  forty-fifth,  sixtieth,  seventy-fifth  and 
ninetieth  years,  and  at  the  expiration  of  the  charter  in  ninety-nine 
years. 

2.  As  an  indemnity  against  the  exercise  of  this  power  there  shall 
be  paid  twenty-five  times  the  average  net  profits  for  the  ten  years 
immediately  preceding  the  repurchase  in  the  thirtieth,  forty-fifth 
and  sixtieth  years ; in  the  seventy-fifth  year  twenty-two  and  a half 
times,  and  in  the  ninetieth  year  twenty  times  this  average ; but  in 
all  cases  an  amount  equal  at  least  to  the  original  capital  stock  shall 
be  paid.  Repurchase  in  the  ninety-ninth  year  should  be  made  by  a 
reimbursement  equal  to  the  probable  cost  of  the  road  at  that  time. 

3.  The  road  was  to  be  transferred  in  a thoroughly  satisfactory 
condition ; and  should  it  not  meet  these  requirements  a correspond- 
ing reduction  was  to  be  made  from  the  amount  awarded  as  an 
indemnity. 

4.  Disputes  as  to  the  amount  of  the  award  were  to  be  submitted  to 
a court  of  arbitration  composed  of  two  members  appointed  by  each 
of  the  parties  in  the  controversy,  and  these  four  were  to  choose  a 
fifth  as  chairman.  Should  the  arbitrators  fail  to  agree  upon  a 
chairman  the  Bundesrat  was  to  nominate  three  persons  from  whose 
number  the  plaintiff  might  first  strike  out  one,  then  the  defendant 
another.  The  remaining  nominee  was  to  be  the  chairman. 

These  propositions  were  finally  approved  by  the  council 
of  states  and  this  approval  laid  the  foundation  of  Swiss 
railway  legislation  for  many  years  to  come.  The  law, 
whose  contents  have  been  indicated  above,  fixed  the  rights 
and  duties  of  the  state  toward  the  railways.  It  still  required 
elaboration.  The  adoption  of  the  repurchase  clauses  was 
the  first  step  in  this  direction.  These,  however,  did  not 
constitute  a part  of  the  law,  but  were  merely  resolutions  of 
the  federal  assembly  which  were  incorporated  in  the  acts  of 

[163] 


22 


Annai^s  of  tiir  Amp:rican  Acadkmy. 


the  federation  for  the  approval  of  cantonal  charters.  After 
an  agreement  had  l)een  reached  concerning  the  contents  of 
these  charters  the  resolutions  were  applied  in  toleraldy  uni- 
form manner  for  all  charters  of  standard  roads  granted  by 
authority  of  the  first  railway  law. 

All  further  regulation  of  the  legal  relations  of  railways, 
in  so  far  as  they  had  not  been  provided  for  by  the  federal 
law  of  1852,  was  left  to  the  cantons. 

In  this  connection  it  is,  of  course,  quite  impossible  to 
enter  upon  a more  detailed  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  cantonal  governments  made  use  of  their  legal  rights  in 
the  domain  of  railway  affairs.  The  results  of  the  exercise 
of  these  rights,  however,  are  very  small  and  their  practical 
effect  a vanishing  quantity.  In  the  nature  of  things  the 
tendency  would  be  not  to  obstruct  the  construction  of 
international  railways  by  means  of  exhaustive  legal  provi- 
sions which,  because  of  the  great  difference  in  the  condi- 
tions in  the  various  cantons,  could  not  well  have  been 
enacted. 

The  cantonal  charter  acts,  on  the  other  hand,  were  much 
more  detailed  and  thorough.  As  a rule  they  contained 
careful  directions  concerning  the  approval  of  plans  and  the 
beginning,  duration  and  nature  of  the  construction.  They 
required  all  plans  to  be  submitted  to  the  government.  The 
construction  of  passenger  coaches,  the  number  and  speed  of 
trains  and  maximum  rates  were  prescribed  and  provisions 
made  concerning  the  policing  of  the  railwa3^s.  The  com- 
panies were  required  to  charge  equal  rates  for  all,  and  to 
grant  favors  to  no  one  which  could  not  be  secured,  under  the 
same  circumstances,  by  everybody  else.  A transfer  of  the 
charter  was  usually  dependent  upon  the  approval  of  the 
cantonal  governments.  The  cantonal  governments  also  re- 
served special  rights  of  repurchase,  modeled  after  those  of 
the  federation,  but  naturally  inferior  to  them.  The  Canton 
of  Bern  alone  exercised  this  right  to  a considerable  extent, 
and  it  later  sold  its  roads  to  a private  company.  The 

[164] 


Nation AivizATioiT  of  Swiss  Railways. 


23 


railways,  however,  in  addition  to  considerable  financial 
support,  received  from  the  cantons  numerous  favors,  two  of 
which  have  special  significance.  One  was  the  assurance  that 
no  other  road  should  be  chartered  in  the  same  direction  or 
region ; the  other,  exemption  from  cantonal  and  communal 
taxes.  (The  Eidgenossenschaft  levies  no  taxes.)  The 
“monopoly  rights”  against  other  roads  led  to  numerous 
complications  and  later  on,  after  the  power  to  grant  char- 
ters had  been  vested  in  the  federation,  the  Eidgenossen- 
schaft declared  them  not  binding.  Roads  upon  which  the 
right  of  exemption  had  been  bestowed  at  that  time  still 
enjoyed  this  privilege.  Up  to  date  the  federal  courts  have 
defended  them  in  the  possession  of  this  right  against  all 
attacks  of  the  cantons;  and  since  the  railway  companies 
have  been  placed  in  fair  and,  in  some  cases  excellent, 
financial  condition,  these  attacks  have  not  been  wanting. 

Lastly,  most  of  the  cantonal  charters  took  advantage  of 
the  right  which  the  law  of  July  19,  1850,  concerning  exemp- 
tion from  military  duty,  had  conceded  to  them,  a law  exempt- 
ing railway  engineers  and  machinists  from  military  service. 
Experience,  however,  soon  demonstrated  that  this  exception 
to  the  principle  of  general  military  duty  did  not  adequately 
meet  the  needs  of  the  trafific ; and  so,  by  a federal  resolution 
of  July  20,  1853,  the  Bundesrat  was  authorized  to  determine 
for  each  railway  separately,  who  among  the  employes,  upon 
whom  devolved  the  care  of  the  safety  of  operation,  should 
be  released  from  the  performance  of  the  general  military 
duties.  This  permission  was  granted  only  with  the  greatest 
possible  restrictions,  but  with  the  introduction  of  the  new 
military  organization,  exemption  has  been  extended  to  all 
persons  employed  in  the  operation  of  railways. 

These  conditions  can  in  nowise  be  characterized  as  ideal 
but  the  Swiss  railways  developed  at  a moderate  rate.  The 
demand  for  the  new  means  of  transportation  had  so  long 
been  checked  by  the  unfavorable  political  and  social  condi- 
tions that,  as  soon  as  a certain  degree  of  stability  had  been 

[165] 


24 


ANNAI.S  OF  TIIK  AMERICAN  AcADKMY. 


brought  about,  the  developiueiit  of  the  net  began.  How- 
ever, the  legislation  of  the  federation  followed  this  develop- 
ment rather  hesitatingly. 

To  carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of  Article  12  of  the 
Railway  Law,  the  Bundcsrat^  in  1854,  issued  an  “Order 
Concerning  the  Technical  Unity  of  Swiss  Railways”  which 
contained  rather  careful  directions  aiming  to  secure  the 
greatest  possible  uniformity  in  construction  and  equipment. 
This  order  regulated  the  width  of  track,  the  radius  of  cur- 
vature, the  height  in  the  clear  of  tunnels,  the  maximum 
height  and  width  of  cars,  the  distance  between  wheel 
centres,  the  width  of  rims,  etc.  This  unification  of  the 
equipment  on  Swiss  railways  was  considered  a military 
necessity. 

The  federal  assembly  took  no  further  action  regarding 
railway  affairs  for  several  years.  In  1858,  it  declined  to 
pass  a bill  relating  to  the  regulation  of  the  conditions  of 
exclusion  from  Swiss  Railways  which  the  Bundesrat^  in 
carrying  into  effect  Article  13  of  the  law  of  1852,  had 
brought  before  it,  because  the  Buyidesrat  possessed  the 
necessary  power  to  regulate  those  conditions  “in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  public  traffic,  the  public  service,  as  well  as  of  the 
most  efficient  operation  of  the  roads.  ” So,  also,  in  1863,  when 
numerous  petitions  had  been  presented  from  the  business 
circles  of  several  cantons  praying  for  the  removal  of  various 
evils  connected  with  transportation  on  the  Swdss  railways, 
this  body  refused  to  act.  This  refusal  was  made  because 
it  was  thought  that  a recent  agreement  among  the  different 
railway  companies  on  uniform  regulations  would  meet  most 
of  the  complaints  ; also  because  it  was  the  duty  of  the  cantons 
rather  than  of  the  federation  to  interfere.  The  federal  as- 
sembly also  thought  that  the  Bimdesrat  would  be  able  to  deal 
with  such  complaints  should  they  continue  to  be  made. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  federal  assembly  remained 
opposed  to  state  interference  in  railway  matters,  although 
the  people  generally  were  demanding  this  interference. 

[166] 


Nationalization  of  Swiss  Railways.  25 

This  resolution  of  the  national  council  was  passed  during 
the  presidency  of  Alfred  Bschers  who  was  spokesman  for  the 
minority  of  the  commission  of  the  national  council  in  1852 
and  had  defeated  the  idea  of  state  railways. 

But  circumstances  are  more  powerful  than  men.  The 
federal  assembly  could  not  long  resist  the  current  of  public 
opinion.  During  the  summer  of  1869,  it  requested  the 
Bundesrat  to  submit  a report  and  a bill  granting  additional 
powers  to  the  federation  in  relation  to  the  operation  of 
railways. 

At  this  juncture  an  event  happened  which  not  only  con- 
tributed powerfully  to  direct  public  opinion  towards  the 
desirability  of  the  participation  of  the  state  in  railway 
transportation,  but  also  showed  to  the  federal  assembly  that, 
at  least,  under  certain  circumstances  the  state  could  not  and 
dared  not  stand  idly  by  and  quietly  watch  the  development 
of  the  railway  system.  In  the  extension  of  the  network  of 
Swiss  railways  the  task  of  building  over  the  Alps  presented 
itself  and  proved  too  great  for  the  combined  efforts  of  the 
cantons  and  private  persons.  The  Eidgenossenschaft  had  to 
conduct  the  diplomatic  negotiations  with  foreign  countries 
which  were  to  aid  the  work  by  the  granting  of  subsidies. 

By  the  treaty  of  October  15,  1869, between  Switzerland  and 
Italy,  which  was  later  on  accepted  also  by  the  North  German 
Federation,  the  foundation  of  the  Gothard  enterprise  was 
laid  and  at  the  same  time  powers  were  entrusted  to  the 
Swiss  Bundesrat  to  execute  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  by 
means  of  the  Gothard  Railway  Company.  These  powers 
gave  the  Bujidesrat  a very  different  position  in  relation  to 
railway  affairs  than  it  had  hitherto  held. 

The  Bundesrat  objected  to  the  creation  of  two  kinds  of 
railway  law,  one  for  the  Gothard  Railway  and  the  other  for 
all  the  remaining  railway  companies;  and  hence  it  gladly 
responded  to  the  invitation  of  the  councils  to  submit  the 
draft  of  a new  railway  law  (1872)  that  would  unify  the 
railway  code. 


[167] 


26 


Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 


Tlie  Gothard  Railway  thus  became  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant immediate  causes  that  brought  about  an  extension 
of  the  rights  of  the  state  in  railway  control.  It  is  a most 
peculiar  coincidence  that  for  the  many  years  of  his  restless 
activity  for  the  inception  of  the  Gothard  Railway  Allred 
Eschers  received  a reward  which  rarely  comes  to  an  indi- 
vidual. The  most  pronounced  and  proudest  champion  of 
the  independence  of  the  railways  from  the  state,  the  spiritual 
father  of  the  railway  law  of  1852,  now,  without  intending 
to  do  so,  gave  the  most  important  impulse  toward  the  new 
railway  law  of  1872. 


The  Railway  Law  of  i8j2. 

The  Bundesrat  presented  the  draft  of  a new  law  together 
with  a very  elaborate  report  to  the  councils  in  1871.  This 
report  characterized  as  an  especially  great  evil  the  inability 
of  the  individual  cantons  to  assert  their  authority  against 
the  greater  railway  companies.  Asa  result  of  this  inability 
there  had  arisen  a series  of  misunderstandings  and  conflicts 
over  the  establishment  of  new  lines  or  their  transfer  to  third 
parties,  over  the  regulation  of  junctions,  the  lack  of  har- 
mony in  time  tables,  rate  questions  and  the  arbitrary  action 
of  the  companies  in  cases  of  liability.  All  these  misde- 
meanors could  be  brought  to  an  end  only  by  the  strong  hand 
of  the  central  government. 

This  report  scarcely  exaggerated  existing  conditions. 
There  was  the  greatest  incoherence  in  Swiss  railway  regu- 
lations because  of  inadequate  federal  legislation.  There 
had  clung  to  Swiss  railways  from  the  beginning  a strong 
particularism  and  an  inability  to  renounce,  for  the  sake 
of  the  simplification  and  unification  of  its  adminis- 
trative machinery  and  traffic  regulations,  claims  which 
were  more  or  less  just.  The  public  was  all  the  more 
inconvenienced  by  these  conditions  because  the  lines  of  the 

[168] 


Nation AI.IZATION  of  Swiss  Railways. 


27 


individual  companies  were  less  extensive  and  their  most 
important  roads  were  only  sections  of  prominent  through 
routes.  In  this  respect,  however,  conditions  were  improved 
little  by  little,  partly  through  the  consolidation  of  smaller 
companies;  partly  by  the  direct  pressure  exerted  by  the 
trafficking  public  or  the  state,  and  not  least,  by  the  con- 
tinued exertions  of  far-sighted  professional  men.  Never- 
theless it  is  certain  that  the  weakness  of  the  railway 
companies  and  their  inability  to  unite  interests  diverging 
in  so  many  directions  became  fatal  to  them.  They  supplied 
the  state  with  a welcome  argument  for,  and  a certain  justifi- 
cation of  the  uninterrupted  extension  of  its  authority  in  the 
domain  of  railway  affairs. 

From  the  beginning  the  railway  companies  had  denied 
to  the  federation  the  right  to  alter  their  legal  status  through 
legislation  because  this  status  rested  on  a private  contract— 
the  charter.  In  its  message  the  Bundesrat,  however,  took 
a very  decisive  position  against  this  conception  by  asserting 
that  charters  are  one-sided  acts  of  the  state  power  which  may 
be  repealed  or  modified  by  the  same  authority.  Neverthe- 
less, it  admitted  that  certain  private  rights  grew  out  of 
charters  which  could  not  equitably  be  annulled  without 
compensation.  Such,  however,  were  not  in  question  here, 
because  the  Bundesrat  was  now  dealing  with  provisions  for 
the  maintenanee  of  public  order,  for  the  protection  of  indi- 
vidual rights  of  public  traffic,  of  the  safety  and  health  of 
the  people,  and  that  all  individuals,  associations  and  corpo- 
rations as  well  as  the  private  citizen  must  be  subordinated 
to  these  higher  interests  of  civil  society. 

The  law  as  it  finally  emerged  from  the  federal  assembly 
on  December  23,  1872,  is  in  four  parts: 

1.  The  granting  of  charters. 

2.  Contents  of  charters  and  the  legal  status  of  the  incorporators. 

3.  Provisions  concerning  the  unity  of  construction  and  operation 
of  Swiss  railways. 

4.  Questions  of  jurisdiction  and  transitionary  regulations. 

[169] 


28 


Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 


As  regards  the  granting  of  charters,  power  is  to  be  exer- 
cised solely  by  the  federation  which  ninst,  however,  pre- 
viously consult  with  the  cantons.  The  federal  assembly 
may  refuse  to  grant  charters  for  railways  which  prejudice 
the  military  interests  of  the  Eidgenossenschaft.  A charter 
may  be  granted  even  against  the  protests  of  a canton,  but 
in  such  a case  the  canton  has  a right  to  build  and  to  operate 
the  railway  in  question  on  its  own  account.  The  law  stipu- 
lates that  charters  shall  be  granted  only  for  limited  periods 
of  time  and  shall  contain  no  rights  of  exclusion.  The 
regulations  of  the  railway  companies,  as  well  as  every 
alteration  of  the  same,  require  the  approval  of  the  Bund- 
esrat.  Charters  are  transferable  only  with  the  consent  of 
the  federation.  The  execution  and  authorization  of  liens 
on  railways  and  the  procedure  in  case  of  insolvency  shall  be 
regulated  by  a special  federal  law.  The  expropriation  law 
applies  to  all  chartered  railways.  A period  of  time  shall  be 
fixed  within  which  the  work  of  grading  must  be  begun  and 
evidence  given  of  ability  to  continue  the  same  under 
penalty  of  forfeiting  the  charter.  (In  practice,  no  objections 
were,  as  a rule,  raised  against  an  extension  of  this  time 
limit  on  the  application  of  the  incorporators.)  The  Bund- 
esrat  shall  also  fix  a term  of  years  for  the  completion  of  the 
road,  in  violation  of  which,  unless  an  extension  is  granted 
by  the  federal  assembly,  the  same  shall  be  sold  at  auction 
on  the  account  of  the  company.  All  plans  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  Btmdesrat  for  approval.  This  body  has  the 
right,  in  the  interests  of  public  safety,  of  traffic  and  of 
public  defence,  to  order  the  construction  of  double  tracks, 
new  stations,  etc.  The  federal  assembly  decides  upon  these 
matters  in  the  last  resort.  For  all  demands  exceeding  the 
legal  and  concessional  requirements  the  companies  shall, 
within  certain  limits,  receive  compensation.  During  the 
period  of  construction  and  operation  the  railway  company 
shall,  at  its  own  expense,  take  all  measures  necessary  for 
the  safety  of  traffic  on  existing  highways,  etc.,  and  for  the 

[•70] 


Nation Ai^izATiON  of  Swiss  Railways.  29 

protection  of  adjacent  property  from  injury.  The  railway 
shall  not  be  opened  for  traffic  until  after  the  Bundesrat  shall 
have  granted  permission  to  do  so.  The  Bundesrat  shall 
previously  authorize  experts  to  inspect  the  road  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  company.  Following  the  completion  of  the 
road,  plans  and  an  inventory  of  the  entire  plant,  in 
addition  to  a correct  account  of  all  expenses,  shall  be 
handed  in  to  the  Bundesrat.  The  same  shall  be  done  for 
later  construction  not  falling  under  the  head  of  maintenance 
and  for  the  purchase  of  equipment.  Railways  are  bound  to 
transport  mail  free  of  charge.  The  federation  may  collect 
annually  a charter  fee  proportionate  to  the  net  profits.  In 
case  of  interruptions  in  traffic  due  to  accidents  provisional 
transportation  of  mails  and  passengers  shall  be  provided  for. 
The  provisions  relating  to  the  construction  and  maintenance 
of  telegraph  lines  are  analogous  to  those  of  the  law  of  1852. 
In  times  of  war  the  federation  is  authorized  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  railways  with  all  their  equipment,  compensation 
being  given.  During  times  of  peace  the  army  and  accou- 
trements of  war  shall  be  transported  at  one-half  the  ordinary 
rates.  Kvery  year  the  companies  shall  transmit  to  the 
Bundesrat  reports  of  their  annual  meeting,  extracts  from  the 
reports  of  the  general  meeting  of  shareholders,  and  all 
material  necessary  for  the  compilation  of  statistics.  The 
more  detailed  provisions  concerning  repurchase  are  to  be 
stipulated  in  the  charters.  On  non-fulfillment  of  legal  and 
concessional  obligations  and  the  observance  of  a certain 
mode  of  procedure,  a charter  may  be  declared  void  and  the 
road,  together  with  its  equipment,  sold  at  auction  on  the 
account  of  the  company. 

The  law  further  gives  (Art.  29-38)  the  federation  exten- 
sive powers  for  the  establishment  of  unity  in  the  construc- 
tion and  operation  of  Swiss  railways.  They  extend  to 
construction,  equipment,  manner  of  building,  heating, 
lighting,  condition  of  cars,  minimum  of  equipment  required 
of  every  railway,  railway  police,  number  of  trains  and 

[171] 


30 


Annals  of  thk  American  Academy. 


observance  of  train  regulations,  the  adoption  of  uniform 
traffic  regulations.  Rates  were  completely  subordinated  to 
the  control  of  the  federation,  which  asserted  the  right  to 
inspect  all  acts  and  contracts  relating  thereto.  Nevertheless, 
the  Bimdesrat  acknowledged  in  a message  that  rates  were 
regulated  less  by  the  directions  of  the  state  than  by  the 
demands  of  traffic.  Consequently  it  based  its  regulations  on 
the  two  principles  that  all  rates  must  lie  within  concessional 
limits  and  that  no  tariffs,  not  provided  for  in  the  charters, 
can  be  collected  unless  they  have  been  expressly  approved  by 
the  Bundesrat  and  publicly  announced.  Such  publication, 
which  is  required  for  all  changes  in  rates,  shall  be  made  at 
least  fourteen  days  before  the  rates  in  question  shall  take 
effect.  Finally,  the  federation  reserved  the  power  to  legis- 
late on  matters  pertaining  to  freight  regulations  and  to  the 
liability  of  railways  for  deaths  and  injuries  connected  with 
the  construction  and  operation  of  the  railways. 

Such  were  the  main  provisions  of  the  new  railway  law. 
They  demonstrate  that  the  federal  assembly  which  enacted 
this  law  no  longer  occupied  the  ground  of  the  federal 
assembly  of  1852.  The  state  at  this  time  interferes 
vigorously  with  matters  which  twenty  years  before  had  been 
considered  within  the  exclusive  domain  of  private  interests. 

This  law,  however,  did  not  terminate  Swiss  railway 
legislation;  it  was  rather  the  first  step  in  a new  direction. 

Hans  Dietler. 

Luzeryi. 

[The  concluding  portion  of  this  paper  will  appear  in  the  Annals  for  May,  1899. 
^The  Editor]. 


MAY. 


ANNALS 


1899. 


OK  THE 

AMERICAN  ACADEMY 

OF 

POLITICAL  AND  SOCIAL  SCIENCE 


REGULATION  AND  NATIONALIZATION  OF  THE 
SWISS  RAILWAYS^li.*'  ' 

: Vf  ' 


The  Extension  of  Railway  Legislation  on  the  Basis  of  the 
Law  of  i8Y2, 


In  connection  with  the  law  of  1872,  the  Bundesrat  issued 
an  “Ordinance  concerning  the  proofs  required  to  accompany 
applications  for  charters  as  well  as  plans  and  documents  to 
be  submitted  before  and  after  the  construction  of  chartered 
railways”  (1873),  Article  27  of  which  goes  to  the  utmost 
limits  of  what  could  be  required  of  the  companies  on 
the  basis  of  the  railway  law.  In  consequence  of  the 
law  the  organization  of  the  Bundesrat  itself  had  to  be 
remodeled.  The  hitherto  limited  powers  of  this  body  con- 
cerning railways  could  be  exercised  without  interference 
from  the  department  of  the  interior;  but  this  was  no 
longer  possible,  and  the  Bundesrat  proposed  the  creation  of 
a special  department  of  railways  and  trade.  A law  to  this 
effect  was  enacted  in  1873  and  the  following  business  was 
entrusted  to  the  new  department:  (i)  the  chartering  of 

♦For  the  first  half  of  this  paper  consult  the  March  Annals. 

[291] 


2 


Annai^  of  the  American  Academy. 


railways;  (2)  the  supervision  required  to  secure  the  com- 
plete and  accurate  fulfillment  of  the  legal  and  concessional 
duties  on  part  of  the  railwa}^  companies;  (3)  the  negotia- 
tion of  railway  junction  treaties  with  foreign  countries. 

This  department, under  which  there  was  placed  a technical 
and  administrative  inspector  with  the  neceSvSary  engineers 
and  corps  of  assistants,  was  subsequently  reorganized  and 
made  the  department  of  posts  and  railways  with  materially 
extended  functions. 

The  new  power  to  grant  charters  caused  the  Bundesrat 
some  anxiety.  It  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  first  charters 
to  be  granted  by  the  federal  assembly  should  be  edited  in 
such  a manner  as  to  serve  as  models  for  all  later  ones. 
Accordingly  it  drew  up  a bill  which,  together  with  a mes- 
sage, was  submitted  to  the  councils  in  1873.  The  distinctive 
principle  in  this  bill  w^as  that  the  applicants  for  new  railway 
charters  should  not  be  placed  in  a less  favorable  position 
than  the  holders  of  those  granted  before  January  i,  1873. 
Especially  in  relation  to  the  provisions  for  repurchase, 
“which  the  federation  had  hitherto  imposed  upon  itself,  hard 
and  heavy,  over  against  the  policy  of  other  countries,”  did 
it  believe  itself  to  be  bound  to  adhere  to  the  principle  of 
equal  justice  to  all  Swiss  railways  whether  their  birthday 
should  fall  before  or  after  January  i,  1873. 

In  reality  these  repurchase  provisions  were  not  edited 
with  entire  conformity  with  acts  approving  the  earlier  char- 
ters, and  at  the  present  time  controversies  are  waged 
between  the  federation  and  the  companies  as  to  the  extent 
to  which  the  older  repurchase  provisions  may  be  called  in 
to  interpret  the  newer  ones. 

The  charter  bill  of  the  Bundesrat,  the  so-called  “normal 
concession  bill,”  was  adopted  by  the  councils  with  minor 
changes,  and  in  its  essentials  has  served  as  a model  for  all 
subsequent  charters  of  normal  railways.  Its  provisions  are, 
on  the  whole,  like  those  of  the  railway  law,  but  a few  of  the 
articles  are  so  significant  as  to  merit  special  notice.  By 

[292] 


Nationalization  of  Swiss  Railways. 


3 


Article  i existing  federal  laws,  as  well  as  all  other  direc- 
tions of  the  federal  authorities  on  the  construction  and 
operation  of  Swiss  railways  shall  at  all  times  be  accurately 
observed. 

Upon  this  the  Bundesrat  remarked  that  several  petitioners 
feared  a future  interpretation  of  this  article  which  would 
permit  subsequent  laws  and  ordinances  to  modify  charter 
provisions  at  pleasure.  Though  this  was  not  the  purport, 
the  article  was  intended  to  mean  that  federal  railway  legis- 
lation should  stand  above  the  charters. 

Article  4 declared  that  a majority  of  the  directors  and  of 
the  administrative  council  or  of  other  committees  should  be 
composed  of  Swiss  citizens  residing  in  Switzerland.  Fear 
of  the  influence  of  foreign  countries  on  Swiss  railway  affairs, 
because  foreign  capital  had  been  largely  employed  in  the  con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  the  Swiss  roads,  has  always 
influenced  the  railway  politics  of  Switzerland  and  helped  to 
create  a sentiment  in  favor  of  railway  nationalization. 

Articles  10  and  1 1 concern  the  federal  supervision  of  con- 
struction and  operation.  Article  12  fixes  the  minimum, 
number  of  daily  trains.  Articles  15  to  25  treat  of  rates j 
that  is,  of  maximum  rates  for  passenger,  freight  and  stock; 
traffic,  their  approval  of  the  Bundesrat  and  their  publica-. 
tion.  When  the  net  profits  reach  a certain  height  rates  are 
to  be  reduced.  Article  27  contains  repurchase  provisions., 
To  this  we  shall  revert  later. 

The  ‘‘normal concession”  served  only  for  a foundation  of 
later  charters  and  had  to  be  supplemented,  extended  or  re- 
stricted to  meet  individual  cases.  Thus,  from  the  year 
1885  on  an  article  was  incorporated  directing  the  establish- 
ment of  reserve  and  renewal  funds  as  well  as  the  institution 
of  pensions  and  aids. 

The  succeeding  years  were  extremely  fruitful  in  railway 
legislation.  Reference  will  be  made  to  a few  of  the  more 
important  acts  which  were  passed  to  supplement  the  law  of 
1872. 


[293] 


4 


Annai.s  of  thr  American  Academy. 


The  federal  law  of  1874  concerning  the  mortgaging  and 
foreclosing  of  railways,  regulated  the  mode  of  procedure. 
The  Transportation  Taw  of  1875  deals  with  the  liability  of 
railways  in  the  management  of  traffic  and  with  the  legal 
principles  governing  the  passenger  service.  Its  most  impor- 
tant provisions  relate  to  freight  traffic,  and  contain  a com- 
plete and  unified  codification  of  freight  law  applicable  in 
all  parts  of  Switzerland.  It  is  the  first  federal  enactment 
on  this  important  question  of  civil  law.  The  liability  of 
railway  companies  for  goods  accepted  for  transportation  is 
herein  sharply  defined.  Only  upon  proof,  which  must  be 
furnished  by  the  railway  company,  that  the  damage  was 
caused  by  the  negligence  of  the  shipper  or  consignee,  by 
the  character  of  the  freight  or  by  a Higher  Power,  can  the 
railway  free  itself  from  liability.  An  exemption  from  lia- 
bility by  contract  is  not  permissible.  In  consequence  of  the 
agreement  of  January  i,  1893,  concerning  international 
freight  traffic,  in  the  adoption  of  which  Switzerland  had 
from  the  first  actively  co-operated,  this  law  has  been  super- 
seded by  the  Transportation  Taw  of  1893,  which  rests 
upon  essentially  the  same  legal  principles. 

The  year  1875  also  brought  forth  the  law  concerning  the 
Tiability  of  Railway  and  vSteamship  Companies  in  Cases  of 
Deaths  and  Injuries,  a law  which  adjusted  the  liability  for 
damages  due  to  accidents  in  transportation  in  a more  rigorous 
manner  than  the  general  rules  of  civil  law  would  warrant. 

From  this  group  of  railway  laws,  all  of  which  have  their 
roots  in  the  law  of  1872,  and  have  a certain  inner  coherency 
in  so  far  as  they  are  intended  to  regulate  the  relations  of 
the  railways  to  the  trafficking  public,  there  is  to  be  distin- 
guished another  law  which  conceives  railways  more  as 
public  institutions  in  which  the  state  has  peculiar  interests. 

After  the  state  had  determined  the  legal  relations  of  the 
railways  to  their  patrons,  it  was  still  obliged  to  prescribe 
regulations  relating  to  railway  employes,  to  the  organiza- 
tion or  constitution  of  the  corporations,  regulations  intended 

[294] 


Nationalization  of  Swiss  Railways. 


5 


to  guard  its  own  direct  interests.  From  these  three  points 
of  view  also  the  railway  legislation  of  this  period  must  be 
studied. 

(a)  Care  of  Employes.  — The  previously  mentioned  liability 
law  forms  a natural  transition  to  the  group  of  laws  which 
occupies  us  here  because  they  not  only  fixed  the  liability 
of  railway  companies  in  case  of  accidents  to  third  persons, 
but  also — and  what  proved  to  be  much  more  important — for 
accidents  to  laborers  and  employes  of  the  road.  The  laws 
were  the  Federal  Taw  concerning  the  Protection  of  the  Sick, 
Aids,  Pension,  Deposit  and  Savings  Funds  of  Railway 
Employes,  as  well  as  of  the  Security  Required  of  the  Latter 
(1878);  the  Federal  Law  concerning  Aids-Funds  of  Rail- 
way and  Steamship  Companies  (1889);  the  Federal  Law 
concerning  the  Hours  of  Employment  in  the  Operation  of 
Railways  and  other  Transportation  Establishments  (1890). 

According  to  the  last  law  the  daily  hours  of  labor  for 
officials,  employes  and  laborers  of  railway  companies  shall 
not  exceed  twelve,  with  a period  of  rest  of  one  hour  at  the 
close  of  about  half  the  labor  period.  The  uninterrupted 
period  of  rest  shall  amount  to  at  least  ten  hours  for  the 
machine  and  train  personnel;  for  the  remainder  of  the  per- 
sonnel, nine  hours;  or  eight  when  they  are  domiciled  in 
station  houses  or  along  the  line.  Officials,  employes  and 
laborers  shall  be  free  from  duty  for  fifty-two  days,  properly 
distributed,  during  each  year;  and  of  these  at  least  seven- 
teen shall  fall  on  Sunday.  No  deductions  from  wages  and 
salaries  shall  be  made  on  account  of  this  freedom.  On 
Sundays  the  transportation  of  ordinary  freight  (not  fast 
freight)  is  prohibited. 

{U)  Regulation  of  the  Inter7ial  Orga^iization  of  Railway 
Companies. — The  rights  of  stock  companies  had  been  left  to 
the  regulation  of  the  cantons  until  the  enactment  of  the  law 
concerning  stocks  and  bonds.  This  federal  law  went  into 
effect  January  i,  1883,  but  gave  all  existing  and  validly 
constituted  companies  until  January  i,  1888,  to  adjust  their 

[295] 


6 


AnnaIwS  of  the  American  Academy. 


statutes  to  the  provisions  of  the  new  law.  For  the  railway 
companies  this  interval  had  been  shortened  to  January  i, 
1885,  by  the  accounting  law,  to  be  discussed  below.  In 
several  other  points  the  accounting  law  broke  through  the 
new  law  on  stocks  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  railway  com- 
panies. It  prescribed  more  detailed  provisions  concerning 
the  balances  of  railway  companies  than  existed  for  other 
stock  companies,  and  deviated  from  the  provisions  of  the 
law  concerning  stocks  and  bonds  by  giving  permanently  to 
the  federation  and  cantons  the  rights  relating  to  voting  and 
administration,  which  had  been  temporarily  vested  in  them 
and  only  in  regard  to  certain  railway  companies.  The  law 
gave  the  federal  authorities  power  of  their  own  accord  to 
regulate  similar  rights  in  the  future. 

As  has  already  been  mentioned,  the  federation  later  on, 
when  it  had  become  chief  stockholder  of  the  Jura-Simplon 
Railroad,  utilized  these  provisions  in  order  to  free  itself 
from  those  terms  of  the  law  concerning  stocks  and  bonds  by 
which  the  number  of  votes  of  a single  shareholder  is  limited 
to  one-fifth  of  the  whole  number  represented  in  the  general 
meeting. 

Of  especial  significance  for  the  law  of  railway  joint  stock 
companies  is  the  federal  act  concerning  the  Right  of  Voting 
of  Stockholders  of  Railw^ay  Companies  and  the  Participation 
of  the  State  in  the  Administration  of  the  Same  (1895). 
This  act  created  for  companies  operating  more  than  100  kilo- 
metres of  railways  is  a most  singular  corporation  law.  The 
right  to  vote  at  general  meetings  is  restricted  to  holders  of 
non-transferable  bonds  which  have  been  recorded  in  the 
stock-book  in  the  name  of  the  holder  for  at  least  six  months, 
or  since  the  organization  of  the  company.  Transferable 
bonds  shall  not  be  converted  into  non-transferable  ones.  A 
single  shareholder  can  be  represented  in  the  general  meeting 
by  one  proxy  only.  Borrowing  and  lending  of  shares  for 
purposes  of  voting  is  forbidden  and  punishable.  At  least 
four-fifths  of  the  administrative  personnel  must  be  composed 

[296] 


Nation AI.IZATION  of  Swiss  Raii^ways. 


7 


of  Swiss  citizens  residing  in  Switzerland.  When  an  admin- 
istration is  composed  of  several  members,  the  Bundesrat 
and  each  of  the  cantons  into  whose  territory  the  railway  ex- 
tends, is  entitled  to  elect  from  one  to  four  members.  The 
cantonal  representatives  shall,  at  the  most,  constitute  one- 
third,  and  those  of  the  federation  and  cantons  together  shall 
not  exceed  two-fifths  of  the  total  membership  of  the  admin- 
istration. They  have  the  rights  of  members  elected  by  the 
general  meeting,  but  need  not  be  shareholders.  The  organs 
(directories)  for  the  transaction  of  business  shall  be  elected 
by  the  administrative  councils,  but  shall  not  be  members  of 
the  latter  at  the  same  time.  The  Bundesrat  shall  approve  the 
resolutions  of  the  general  assembty,  which  approval  may  be 
refused  when  important  public  interests  are  prejudiced. 
For  the  same  reason  it  may  suspend  resolutions  of  the 
administrative  councils,  etc.  Another  part  of  the  law  deals 
with  penalties  following  its  violation. 

Only  the  first  part  of  the  law  concerned  the  interests  of 
the  shareholders,  and  this  part  of  the  law  was  not  very  suc- 
cessful. The  rest  of  the  act  was  intended  to  insure  to  the 
state  the  greatest  possible  influence  over  the  administration 
of  the  railways.  Hence  this  act  falls  into  the  group  of  laws 
which  aimed  to  accomplish : 

(c)  The  Preservatio7i  of  the  Interests  of  the  State  in  Rail 
way  Affairs. — The  interests  of  the  state  were  chiefly  those 
of  a possible  future  owner  of  the  railways.  We  have  already 
shown  that  the  idea  of  a state  system,  even  after  the  defeat 
which  this  notion  suffered  in  1852,  was  in  nowise  given  up. 
The  federal  government  adhered  to  it  with  tenacity  and 
this  idea  continually  infused  a certain  feeling  of  freedom 
of  disposition  in  railway  matters  which  may  be  compared 
with  the  feelings  of  a landlord  who  intends  himself  to  cul- 
tivate his  farm  after  the  lease  expires. 

The  accounting  laws  of  1883  and  1896  indicate  this. 
These  laws,  however,  have  for  their  foundation  and  postu- 
late the  repurchase  provisions  of  the  charters,  and  it  will  be 

[297] 


8 


Annai^  of  thk  American  Academy. 


desirable  to  consider  those  provisions  before  discussing  the 
laws  in  question. 

Repurchase  Provisions  of  Charters  after  the  Year  i8y2. 

The  situation  prior  to  the  year  1872  has  been  described 
above,  and  we  have  already  stated  that  it  was  not  the  inten- 
tion of  the  Bundesrat  to  incorporate  in  the  normal  charter 
repurchase  provisions  which  should  differ  from  those 
hitherto  in  force.  Much  more  than  this  was  required  to 
adjust  them  to  the  provisions  of  existing  charters.  The 
councils  sympathized  with  this  view  and  accepted,  with  few 
changes,  the  wording  of  the  repurchase  clauses  of  the  nor- 
mal concession  (Art.  27)  proposed  by  the  Bundesrat.  This 
article  as  accepted  reads:  In  the  execution  of  the  repur- 
chase powers  of  the  federation,  or — if  the  federation  .should 
not  exercise  the  powers — of  the  participating  cantons,  the 
following  provisions  shall  apply : 

{a)  Repurchase  can  at  the  earliest  be  undertaken  on  May 
I,  1893,  and  thereafter  at  any  time.  The  company  shall 
receive  three  years’  notice  of  the  resolution  to  repurchase 
before  the  same  can  take  effect. 

{h)  Through  such  repurchase  the  government  becomes 
owner  of  the  road  with  all  its  equipment  and  other  appurte- 
nances. Nevertheless,  the  rights  of  third  persons  toward 
pension  and  aids  funds  remain  intact.  At  whatever  time 
repurchase  may  be  effected,  the  road  and  all  its  appliances 
shall  be  ceded  to  the  federation,  or  to  the  canton,  in  an 
entirel}^  satisfactory  condition.  Should  these  conditions 
not  be  complied  with  and  should  the  expenditure  of  the 
renewal  and  reserve  funds  not  be  sufficient  for  this  purpose, 
then  a proportionate  sum  is  to  be  deducted  from  the  repur- 
chase price. 

(f)  The  amount  of  the  indemnity  for  repurchase,  in  so 
far  as  the  latter  becomes  lawful  before  May  i,  1918,  shall 
equal  twenty-five  times  the  average  annual  net  profits  for  the 
ten  years  immediately  preceding  the  date  on  which  the 

[298] 


Nationalization  of  Swiss  Railways. 


9 


company  had  been  notified  of  the  intention  to  repurchase; 
if  repurchase  takes  place  between  May  i,  1918  and  May  i, 
1933,  twenty-two  and  a half  times  this  average;  between 
May  I,  1933  and  the  expiration  of  the  charter,  twenty 
times  the  above  described  average;  but  in  no  case  shall  the 
indemnity  be  less  than  the  certified  amount  of  the  original 
investment  less  the  amount  of  the  renewal  and  reserve 
funds. 

In  the  determination  of  the  original  costs  and  of  the  net 
profits,  any  business  interests  associated  solely  with  the 
railway  enterprise  ceded  to  the  State  by  this  act  may  be 
considered  in  making  the  calculations. 

{d)  The  net  profits  shall  consist  of  the  excess  of  the 
operating  receipts  over  operating  expenses,  including  in 
the  latter  all  sums  that  have  been  transferred  to  other 
accounts  or  that  have  been  incorporated  in  a reserve  fund. 

{e)  In  case  of  repurchase  at  the  expiration  of  the  charter, 
the  government  may  choose  between  paying  the  amount  of 
the  original  investment  in  construction  and  equipment  or  a 
sum  estimated  by  the  federal  court. 

(/)  Disagreements  which  may  arise  over  repurchase  and 
the  questions  connected  therewith  shall  lie  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  federal  court. 

In  fixing  the  net  profits  the  Bundesrat  had  proposed  to 
include  interest  on  indebtedness  among  expenses.  The 
federal  assembly  struck  it  out.  Provision  e was  first  inserted 
by  the  federal  assembly. 

The  provisions  according  to  which  the  minimum  amount 
of  the  indemnity  should  at  least  equal  original  costs  was 
frequently  omitted  in  later  charters.  In  other  respects  the 
repurchase  provisions  of  all  charters  granted  from  the  year 
1872  on  were  in  their  essentials  like  those  of  the  normal 
concession. 

The  systems  of  the  larger  Swiss  railway  companies  have, 
without  exception,  been  built  on  the  basis  of  older  conces- 
sions, and  not  on  the  basis  of  a single  charter.  Charters 

[299] 


lO 


Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 


were  granted  at  different  times  for  individual  sections  of  the 
road,  consequently  there  are  varying  repurchase  limits. 
Only  the  Gotthard  Railroad  has  but  one  repurchase  limit. 
Notice  of  the  intention  to  repurchase  may  be  given  to  it  on 
May  I,  1904,  and  on  May  i,  1909,  the  same  may  be  executed. 

By  voluntary  agreement  wuth  the  other  large  companies 
the  Bundesrat  sought,  at  a convenient  time,  to  bring  about 
a consolidation  of  the  different  charters  and  a unification  of 
the  repurchase  limits.  It  was  successful  with  the  Swiss 
Central,  the  United  Swiss,  and  the  Jura-Simplon  railways 
which,  with  their  dependent  lines,  may  be  repurchased  on 
May  I,  1903.  With  the  Northeast  Railroad  this  has  not, 
thus  far,  been  possible,  hence  it  has  secondary  lines  which 
may  be  repurchased  on  the  above  date,  and  others  whose 
acquisition  will  not  be  possible  till  later. 

The  clause  according  to  which  the  decision  of  repurchase 
disputes  shall,  in  all  future  charters,  no  longer  be  entrusted 
to  a court  of  arbitration,  but  to  the  federal  court,  is  much 
newer  than  the  other  clauses. 

The  repurchase  provisions  of  the  normal  concession  could 
be  regarded  only  as  interpretative  material  for  the  explana- 
tion of  the  charters  of  the  older  lines,  but  because  of  the 
w'ell-known  intention  of  the  Bundesrat  to  model  the  older 
concessions  closely  after  the  normal  concession,  those  pro- 
visions were  of  paramount  importance.  They  also  help  in 
the  interpretation  of  the  existing  repurchase  provisions 
which  have  by  no  means  been  drawn  up  with  a doubt- 
excluding  clearness. 

The  price  to  be  paid  by  the  state  is  to  be  calculated  on 
the  basis  of  the  net  profits,  or  it  is  to  be  made  equal  to  the 
original  capital  stock,  i.  e. , original  costs,  etc.  Both  are 
notions  whose  contents  can  by  no  means  be  considered  fixed 
beyond  dispute  without  further  definition.  That  the  road 
and  all  its  appliances  shall  be  transferred  in  a thoroughly 
satisfactory  condition  are  likewise  demands  which  require 
judicial  definition. 

[300] 


Nation AI.IZATION  of  Swiss  Railways. 


n 


In  drawing  up  the  charters  and  resolutions  of  approval, 
these  ambiguities  had  manifestly  not  been  much  noticed. 
Not  until  it  was  proposed  to  put  the  repurchase  provisions 
into  operation  did  men  become  conscious  of  the  difficulties 
which  obstructed  an  accurate  determination  of  the  repur- 
chase price,  and  then  only  little  by  little. 

This  happened  for  the  first  time  in  1883.  At  this  time, 
while  the  Bundesrat  was  giving  the  question  of  the  repur- 
chase of  a large  number  of  Swiss  railways  a somewhat 
extensive  investigation,  it  made  the  discovery  that  the 
capital  stock  of  the  various  roads  was  estimated  too  high 
and  that  the  average  dividends  paid  by  them  during  the 
last  ten  years  appeared  excessive  in  comparison  with  the 
actual  receipts,  and  that  a materially  smaller  income  would 
have  to  be  looked  for  in  the  future.  Furthermore,  the  re- 
purchase procedures  prescribed  by  the  charters  and  the  lack 
of  legal  provisions  for  the  determination  of  the  repurchase 
sum,  left  every  guaranty  wanting  that  the  purchase  price 
would  correspond  with  the  actual  value  and  income. 

For  this  reason  the  Bundesrat  could  not  advise  the  federal 
assembly  to  give  the  companies  notice  of  repurchase  on  May 
I,  1883.  It  however  felt  itself  under  obligations  to  remove 
the  difficulties  which  it  had  discovered  before  the  expiration 
of  the  next  repurchase  period ; and  since  repurchase  on  the 
basis  of  capital  stock  should  have  taken  place  in  1883  for 
nearly  all  railways,  it  proposed  a law  to  enable  the  govern- 
ment to  determine  accurately  the  capital  stock  and  to  reduce 
it  as  much  as  possible. 

Laws  Preparatory  to  Repurchase. 

The  Accounting  Law  o/i88j.  — The  federal  law  concerning 
the  Business  of  Accounts  of  Railway  Companies  of  Decem- 
ber 21,  1884,  is  known  briefly  as  the  “Accounting  Law.” 
Besides  being  intended  to  facilitate  concessional  repurchases 
in  the  future,  a purpose  which  is  clearly  reflected  in  the 
origin  of  the  law  and  in  the  message  that  accompanied  it 

[301] 


2 


Annai^  of  the  American  Academy. 


'W’hen  it  was  submitted  to  the  councils,  the  law  also  aimed 
at  an  improvement  in  the  accounting  system.  The  effect 
of  the  law  has  been  to  place  the  railways  on  a .sounder 
financial  basis. 

The  law  provides  that  only  the  actual  costs  of  construc- 
tion or  acquisition  shall  be  placed  among  the  assets  of  the 
balance  sheet.  When  a road  is  purchased  l)y  another  com- 
pany the  purchase  price  shall  not  exceed  the  value  of  the 
new  balance,  even  though  the  cost  of  construction  was 
greater;  in  no  case  shall  the  amount  of  the  old  balance  be 
exceeded.  After  a road  has  been  opened  to  traffic  the  cost 
of  completion,  extension,  or  of  additional  equipment  shall 
be  counted  as  assets  only  when  these  expenses  secure  an 
extension  or  an  essential  improvement  of  the  existing  plant 
in  the  interests  of  traffic.  The  costs  of  maintenance  and 
replacement  shall  be  paid  out  of  annual  revenues  or  out  of 
funds  set  apart  for  this  purpose.  However,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  Bundesrat  these  costs  may  be  distributed  over 
several  years,  whenever  they  are  of  an  exceptional  charac- 
ter. Sums  which  have  been  incorrectly  entered  in  the 
construction  account  and  all  items  removable  from  the 
balance,  are  to  be  replaced  from  the  annual  surplus  revenues 
in  accordance  with  a sinking  fund  plan  approved  by  the 
Bundesrat. 

In  case  the  general  meeting  of  the  company  refuses  to 
recognize  the  changes  in  the  accounts  and  balance  requested 
by  the  Bundesrat,  the  latter  may  appeal  to  the  federal  court, 
within  thirty  days.  Kvery  payment  of  dividends  shall  be 
deferred  until  such  disputes  have  been  settled,  a provision 
which  has  been  somewhat  moderated  in  practice  by  retain- 
ing only  a sum  sufficient  to  cover  the  difference.  As  a 
transitionary  regulation  the  right  to  refer  the  fixing  of  the 
capital  stock  in  cases  of  repurchase  to  a court  of  arbitration 
was  granted. 

Among  the  items  removable  from  the  assets  of  the 
balance,  and  which  were  to  be  replaced  from  a sinking  fund 

[302] 


Nation AuzATioN  of  Swiss  Raiways. 


3 


formed  out  of  the  annual  surplus  revenues,  the  Bundesrat 
included,  first  of  all,  the  costs  of  incorporation,  organiza- 
tion and  administration,  losses  sustained  in  calling  in  stocks 
and  bonds  quoted  at  a premium,  expenses  involved  in 
rebuilding  and  changing  tracks  and  operating  appliances, 
in  so  far  as  no  real  increase  in  the  value  of  the  plant  has 
been  brought  about  through  these  outlays.  The  Bundesrat 
had  estimated  the  amount  which,  in  consequence  of  this 
law,  was  to  be  transferred  from  the  building  account  of  the 
five  large  Swiss  railways  in  question  at  about  seventy  and 
a half  millions  of  francs.  The  final  settlement  of  this  bal- 
ance amounted  to  over  one  hundred  and  twelve  millions  of 
francs,  and  the  Swiss  railways  have  since  been  amortizing 
that  sum. 

By  the  time  the  next  term  of  notification  for  repurchase 
had  arrived  conditions  had  materially  changed.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  large  Swiss  railway  companies  had  been 
strengthened,  traffic  was  growing,  and  revenues  were  in- 
creasing steadily  in  spite  of  the  rigid  accounting  regu- 
lations. The  Bundesrat  foresaw  that  it  would  ver}^  probably 
be  obliged  to  pay  to  the  majority  of  the  railways,  in  case  of 
repurchase  in  1903,  twenty-five  times  the  net  profits  for  the 
ten  years  immediately  preceding  the  notification  of  repur- 
chase, and  not  the  amount  of  their  capital  stock,  which 
would  have  been  paid  had  notice  been  given  in  1883. 

The  Accoitnting  Law  of  i8g6. — The  law  of  1883  had  not 
sufficiently  provided  for  determining  net  profits.  This 
defect,  as  well  as  a series  of  other  hindrances  which  stood 
in  the  way  of  a concessional  repurchase,  the  Bundesrat 
endeavored  to  remove  through  a new  law — the  Accounting 
Law  of  1896.  The  Bundesrat  asserted  that  the  first  thing 
to  be  done  was  to  require  the  companies  to  hand  in  accurate 
statements  and  vouchers  which  would  supply  the  govern- 
ment with  the  material  necessary  for  the  correct  determina- 
tion of  the  repurchase  price  before  acting  upon  the 
resolution  to  repurchase.  In  reality,  however,  it  was 

[303] 


H 


AnnaIvS  of  the  American  Academy. 


attempted  to  insert  in  the  law  certain  provisions  which  would 
materially  influence  the  amount  of  the  repurchase  price, 
and  that  not  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  state. 

The  main  contents  of  the  law  are  the  following:  The 
accounts  and  balances  of  the  railway  companies,  contained  in 
forms  provided  by  the  Bundesrat,  shall  be  submitted  to  that 
body  for  examination  and  approval  before  the  same  are  pre- 
sented to  the  general  meeting  of  stockholders.  At  the  same 
time  special  vouchers  relating  to  net  profits  and  capital  .stock 
shall  be  handed  in;  for  the  examination  of  which  the  Bund- 
esrat shall  have  access  to  the  books  of  the  company.  It 
may  also  demand  a separate  statement  for  each  line  owned 
by  a company,  and  in  case  any  company  fails  to  make  such 
statement  the  Bundesrat  may,  on  its  own  motion,  order  a 
consolidation  of  the  various  charters  and  fix  May  i,  1903,  as 
the  common  date  of  repurchase.  After  the  opening  of 
traffic  only  such  outlays  for  completing  and  extending  the 
road  or  for  purchasing  additional  appliances  through  which 
an  increase  or  material  improvement  of  traffic  is  brought 
about  shall  be  entered  upon  the  building  account.  Expenses 
for  improving  or  strengthening  the  permanent  way  shall  not 
be  carried  on  the  construction  account.  The  value  of  re- 
moved or  ruined  structures  shall  be  transferred  from  the 
construction  account.  Plans  and  estimates  of  intended 
purchases  of  appliances,  whose  entry  on  the  construction 
account  is  permissible  after  the  opening  of  the  road,  shall 
first  be  laid  before  the  Bundesrat.  The  construction  ac- 
count shall  especially  not  be  burdened  with  the  costs  of 
incorporation  and  of  raising  the  necessary  capital;  losses 
due  to  a fall  in  the  market  value  of  stocks  and  bonds;  sub- 
sidies granted  to  other  railways,  highways,  bridges  and  the 
like  which  remain  property  of  third  persons,  even  when  the 
railway  bears  their  entire  cost ; the  cost  of  structures  erected 
by  subventions  ^ fonds  perdu;  nor  the  cost  of  organizing 
and  directing  the  operation  of  the  road.  The  maintenance 
of  existing  structures  and  appliances  shall  be  accounted  as 

[304] 


Nationalization  of  Swiss  Railways.  15 

running  expenses.  Interest  on  indebtedness  and  contribu- 
tions to  the  renewal  and  other  statutory  and  regulative  funds 
shall  be  entered  under  expenses  of  the  profits  and  loss 
account,  even  when  revenues  are  not  adequate  to  defray 
them.  For  all  structures  and  appliances  subject  to  material 
depreciation,  such  as  track,  rolling  stock,  tools  and  imple- 
ments, a renewal  fund  shall  be  established  which  is  at  all 
times  to  correspond  to  the  full  amount  of  such  depreciation. 
In  consultation  with  the  companies  the  Bundesrat  shall 
annually  determine  the  amount  of  the  contribution  to  this 
fund,  reserving  to  the  companies  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
federal  court.  The  difference  between  the  renewal  fund  and 
the  depreciated  value  of  the  road,  as  well  as  all  items  which 
cannot  be  carried  on  the  construction  account,  shall  for  the 
time  being  be  entered  among  the  assets  and  sunk  by  annual 
contributions  from  current  revenues.  The  Bundesrat  is  final 
authority  as  to  the  time  and  amounts  in  which  these  sums 
shall  be  replaced.  Dividends  cannot  be  paid  until  the 
accounts  have  been  approved.  To  what  extent  these  pro- 
visions relating  to  the  construction  account  and  contribu- 
tions to  the  renewal  fund  are  calculated  to  affect  the 
repurchase  price  itself  the  future  will  decide.  The  attempt 
to  employ  them  in  such  a direction  does  not  appear  to  be 
wanting. 

In  case  the  Bundesrat  objects  to  the  annual  accounts  or 
balances,  the  companies  may  appeal  to  the  federal  court 
within  thirty  days.  Dividends  cannot  be  paid  until  after 
the  accounts  have  been  approved. 

One  part  of  the  law  stipulates  that  after  the  law  has 
gone  into  effect  the  Bundesrat  shall,  by  amicable  negotia- 
tions with  the  companies,  determine  the  amounts  which 
may  be  carried  on  the  construction  account  as  expended 
during  the  expired  period  of  time  as  well  as  the  sums  that 
may  be  credited  to  the  renewal  fund ; and  further,  the  law 
stipulates  that  the  Bundesrat  shall  secure  an  agreement 
as  to  the  principles  according  to  which  the  concessional 

[305] 


i6  Annal<s  of  thk  American  Academy. 

calculations  of  net  profits  and  capital  stock  shall  be  made. 
Should  such  an  agreement  not  be  possible,  then  the  Bund- 
esrat  shall  settle  the  question.  The  companies  have  the 
right  of  recourse  to  the  federal  court. 

Finall)^  the  federal  court  is  declared  to  be  ultimate 
authority  in  all  questions  of  dispute  which  by  the  charters 
may  be  referred  to  a court  of  arbitration.  This  provision 
drew  upon  the  law  the  sharp  criticism  that  it  prejudiced 
the  charter  rights  of  stockholders  in  an  impermissible 
manner. 

This  law  went  into  effect  November  i,  1896,  and  was  the 
last  one  passed  as  a preparation  for  the  repurchase  act  itself. 
In  enacting  the  Accounting  Law'  it  is  possible  that  the  in- 
tention was  to  create  a definite  basis  for  the  determination 
of  the  repurchase  price  of  the  five  large  roads,  and  to  under- 
take these  calculations  before  the  close  of  the  next  period 
of  notice  which,  for  a number  of  important  lines,  was  May 
I,  1898.  However,  this  object  was  not  attained. 

After  the  Accounting  Law  had  gone  into  effect  on  No- 
vember I,  1896,  the  Bundesrat  allowed  nearly  a whole  year 
to  pass  before  taking  up  the  negotiations  with  the  railway 
companies  provided  for  by  the  law  relating  to  the  conces- 
sional determination  of  the  net  profits  and  the  capital  stock. 
During  these  negotiations  irreconcilable  differences  of 
opinion  were  brought  to  light,  and  nothing  was  decided. 
Consequently  after  the  repurchase  law  had  been  accepted  by 
both  councils, but  before  it  had  been  voted  on  by  the  people, 
the  Bundesrat,  on  its  own  motion,  established  the  principles 
by  which  the  net  profits  and  capital  stock  were  to  be  fixed. 
The  railway  companies  hereupon  had  recourse  to  their 
right  of  appeal  to  the  federal  court.  The  opinion  on  this 
appeal  was  handed  down  toward  the  close  of  the  year  1898. 
and  was  favorable  to  the  State. 

It  is  fair  to  assume  that  since  the  principles  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  net  profits  and  capital  stock  have  now 
been  decided  upon,  the  Bundesrat  will  make  another 


NATIONAI.IZATION  OF  SwiSS  RAIWAYS. 


17 


attempt  to  reach  an  understanding  with  the  companies  on 
the  terms  of  repurchase.  In  the  proceedings  of  1898  the 
vital  problem  was  the  definition  of  the  terms  net  profits  and 
capital  stock,  and  the  treatment  of  contributions  to  the 
renewal  fund,  while  the  equally  indefinite  charter  provi- 
sions concerning  appurtenances  and  the  satisfactory  condi- 
tion at  the  time  of  transfer  were  not  given  much  attention. 

The  Federal  Law  of  October  75,  Concerning 

Repurchase  of  Railways. 

The  Acquisition  of  the  Railways  and  their  Legal  Status. — 
The  federal  law,  * together  with  an  elaborate  message,  was 
submitted  to  the  federal  assembly  on  March  25,  1897,  and 
during  the  course  of  that  year  was  accepted  by  both  the 
councils.  The  councils  made  several  changes  in  the  bill, 
especially  in  the  part  relating  to  the  future  organization  of 
the  railways.  As  was  to  be  expected,  the  referendum  was 
resorted  to  within  the  legal  time  limits.  The  vote  was  taken 
on  February  20,  1898,  and  a heavy  majority  secured  in  favor 
of  the  law. 

The  law  contains  the  necessary  provisions  concerning  the 
acquisition  and  operation  of  railways  by  the  federation  and 
the  organization  of  the  administration  of  the  Swiss  federal 
roads.  It  first  establishes  the  general  principle  that  the 
Swiss  railways,  which,  because  of  their  economic  or  political 
importance,  serve  the  interests  of  the  Eidgenosse7ischaft  or 
of  a major  part  of  the  same,  and  the  acquisition  of  which 
can  be  achieved  without  disproportionate  sacrifices,  shall 
be  purchased  by  the  federation  and  operated  on  its  account 
under  the  name  of  the  “Swiss  Federal  Railways.  ” In  ad- 
dition it  names  those  lines  which  are  to  be  purchased  at  the 
expiration  of  the  next  time  limit.  These,  the  five  trunk 
lines,  are  the  Central,  purchasable  in  1903,  Jura-Simplon, 

* Concerning  the  Acquisition  and  Operation  of  Railways  on  the  Account  of  the 
Federation  and  the  Organization  of  the  Administration  of  the  Swiss  Federal  Rail- 
ways, of  October  15,  1897. 


C307] 


i8  Annals  of  titk  American  Academy. 

1903,  the  Northeast  (the  majority  of  its  lines),  1903,  the 
United  Swiss,  1903,  and  the  Gotthard  Railroad,  1909. 
These  companies  operated  2748  km.  in  1897.  Bundesrat 
is,  moreover,  empowered,  with  the  consent  of  the  federal 
assembly,  to  purchase  such  other  of  the  then  existing  roads 
as  may  conform  to  the  above  conditions,  or  it  may  under- 
take simply  the  operation  of  secondary  lines.  The  acquisi- 
tion of  the  railways  shall  take  place  by  means  of  repurcha.se 
on  the  basis  of  the  “federal  law  and  charters,”  but  a free- 
handed purchase,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  federal 
assembly,  shall  not  be  excluded,  in  which  case  the  same 
principles  shall  prevail  in  fixing  the  repurchase  price. 

The  funds  necessary  for  repurchase  shall  be  raised  by  the 
emission  of  obligations  or  coupon  bonds.  This  indebtedness 
shall  be  canceled  within  sixty  years,  at  the  farthest,  by 
means  of  a fixed  plan  of  amortization.  By  voluntary 
agreement  with  the  owners,  and  by  complying  with  the 
above  amortization  plan  some  other  means  of  payment  may 
be  chosen.  It  is  probable  that  in  this  connection  an 
assumption  of  the  bonded  indebtedness  of  the  road  was  kept 
in  view  either  as  part  or  full  payment,  although  the  Bund- 
esrat does  not  recognize  it  as  a duty  to  assume  the  debts  of 
the  railway  companies. 

The  provision  relating  to  the  amortization  of  the  entire 
capital  necessary  for  the  purchase  and  operation  of  the  rail- 
ways, within  sixty  years,  which  has  been  pronounced 
possible  by  the  Bundesrat,  won  the  measure  many  friends. 
It  may  even  be  said  that  among  the  masses  of  the  people  this 
was  the  most  decisive  factor  in  their  acceptance  of  the  law. 
It  is  also  absolutely  indisputable  that  it  will  be  an  enormous 
economic  advantage  for  Switzerland  to  be  in  possession  of 
a great  network  of  railways,  free  from  indebtedness,  by  the 
middle  of  the  next  century.  In  view  of  these  enticing 
possibilities  and  the  assurances  of  the  federal  authorities, 
doubts  as  to  the  realization  of  this  beautiful  thought,  fre- 
quently uttered  by  the  experts,  were  passed  over  rather 

[308] 


NationaIvIzation  of  Swiss  Railways.  19 

lightly.  Article  8 of  the  law  prescribes  that  the  complete 
separation  of  the  accounts  of  the  federal  railways  from  those 
of  the  federation  is  of  great  importance.  The  income 
of  the  federal  railways  shall  never  be  employed  in  meeting 
other  expenses  of  the  state,  but  shall  be  used  first  of  all  for 
the  payment  of  interest  and  the  amortization  of  the  indebt- 
edness of  the  railways.  Whatever  remains  shall  be  divided 
as  follows:  20  per  cent  is  to  be  paid  into  a reserve  fund  to 
be  administered  by  the  state  and  kept  distinct  from  other 
assets  until  the  same  shall  amount  to  50,000,000  francs;  the 
other  80  per  cent  shall  be  employed  in  the  interests  of  the 
federal  railroads,  to  the  improvement  of  the  traffic,  reduction 
of  rates,  etc. 

These  provisions  are  intended  to  make  it  impossible  to 
operate  the  federal  railways  for  fiscal  purposes.  The  rail- 
roads are  to  serve  exclusively  the  general  interests  of 
traffic. 

Organizatioji  of  the  Ad^ninistration  of  the  Federal  Railways* 
— What  now  is  the  nature  of  the  administration  to  which 
the  performance  of  the  momentous  task  of  directing  the 
future  federal  railways  is  to  be  entrusted?  It  is  not,  and 
could  not  be,  expected  to  be  very  simple.  There  were 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  which  were  by  no  means  trivial, 
because  of  the  manifold  political  interests,  wishes,  appre- 
hensions, which  came  in  collision  with  the  desires  of 
economic  associations  and  the  principles  of  a simple,  expedi- 
ent administrative  organization. 

One  of  the  foremost  demands  was  to  make  the  railway 
administration  as  independent  as  possible  of  the  other  parts 
of  federal  administration  in  order  thereby  to  protect  it,  at 
the  outset,  as  much  as  possible  from  every  political  influ- 
ence. This  demand  was  met  by  the  provision  of  the  law 
that  “the  administration  of  the  federal  railways  shall  form 
a special  part  of  the  federal  administration.” 

The  deliberations  of  the  federal  assembly  led  more  and 
more  to  a decentralization  of  the  organization  of  the 

[309] 


20 


Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 


railway  administration,  in  order  to  iiivSiire  to  the  cantons 
and  various  country  districts  some  influence  upon  it,  and  to 
promote  the  adoption  of  the  law  by  yielding  wherever 
possible. 

The  entire  network  of  Swiss  federal  railways  is  divided 
into  five  circuits,  whose  managements  have  their  seats  in 
Lausanne,  Basel,  Zurich,  St.  Gallen  and  Luzern,  corre- 
sponding to  the  present  railway  administrative  centres.  At 
the  head  of  each  circuit  there  is  a circuit  directory  composed 
of  three  members.  Above  these  bodies  there  is  a general 
directory  of  five  or  seven  members  with  its  seat  in  Bern. 
The  members  of  both  the  circuit  directory  and  of  the 
general  directory  are  elected  by  the  Bundesrat  on  the  vol- 
untary nomination  of  the  administrative  council.  This 
body  also  names  the  president  and  vice-president  of  the 
directory. 

The  scope  of  the  business  of  the  circuit  directory  embraces 
the  current  business  of  the  respective  circuit,  namely:  (i) 
the  administrative  and  judicial  representation  of  the  railway 
administration  in  all  those  affairs  over  which  the  circuit 
directory  has  jurisdiction;  (2)  the  drafting  of  estimates 
falling  within  its  business  scope;  (3)  the  maintenance  of 
the  road  and  appliances,  including  the  superstructure  and 
the  management  of  the  telegraph;  (4)  the  management  of 
repairs  and  other  changes  in  the  construction  of  the  operated 
network,  in  so  far  as  these  have  not  been  separately  provided 
for  by  the  general  directory;  and  the  making  of  contracts, 
connected  with  these  matters  relating  to  the  acquisition  of 
land,  building  and  delivery  when  the  sum  involved 
does  not  exceed  100,000  francs;  (5)  drawing  up  plans 
for  the  structures  mentioned  in  4,  above,  in  so  far  as  this 
has  not  been  reserved  by  the  general  directory;  (6)  to  keep 
watch  over  the  road  and  the  railway  police ; (7)  the  neces- 
sary precautions  for  the  protection  of  the  railway  adminis- 
tration against  encroachments  upon  its  property  rights  and 
against  annoyances  of  possession ; (8)  the  construction  of 

[310] 


Nationalization  of  Swiss  Railways. 


21 


time  tables  for  the  network  operated  by  it,  with  due  regard 
for  the  norms  set  up  by  the  administrative  council,  and 
other  regulations  of  the  general  directory ; (9)  motive  power 
department;  (10)  train  service;  (ii)  shipping,  including 
warehouse  management;  (12)  operation  of  machine  shops; 
(13)  chief  administration  of  magazines  and  materials,  sub- 
ject to  the  powers  of  the  general  directory;  (14)  the  man- 
agement of  carting  [camionnage]  and  making  contracts 
relating  thereto  with  undertakers;  (15)  the  making  of 
building  and  delivery  contracts  not  reserved  to  the  general 
directory;  (16)  the  adjustment  of  claims  of  the  internal 
traffic  of  the  federal  railways  arising  from  an  incorrect 
application  of  rates  or  incorrect  routing,  from  losses  or 
damages  of  goods,  from  delays  in  passenger  and  freight 
traffic,  in  so  far  as  this  cannot  be  assigned  to  station  chiefs 
or  other  employes;  further,  taking  up  and  transmitting  to 
the  general  directory  similar  claims  arising  out  of  traffic 
with  other  railways;  (17)  the  management  of  indemnity 
claims  arising  from  killing  and  injuring  persons;  (18)  the 
leasing  and  renting  of  disposable  immobilia  and  of  station 
restaurants;  (19)  the  sale  of  dispensable  immobilia;  (20) 
matters  pertaining  to  taxes;  (21)  rendering  opinions  on 
questions  submitted  to  it  by  the  general  directory,  especially 
on  rates  and  on  regulating  the  relations  with  union  depots, 
and  other  traffic  regulations  with  connecting  roads;  (22) 
giving  audience  to  authorities  and  private  persons  concern- 
ing affairs  which  fall  within  the  business  scope  of  the  gen- 
eral directory  and  transmitting  the  desires  of  complainants, 
to  the  latter  with  an  opinion.  To  this  we  must  add  the 
election  of  its  personnel,  with  the  exception  of  chiefs  of 
divisions. 

The  approval  of  the  general  directory  is  required  for:  (i) 
agreements  concerning  the  disposition  of  claims  enumerated 
in  17  above,  when  anyone  allowance  exceeds  20,000  francs; 
(2)  contracts  relating  to  carting  [see  14  above]  ; (3)  contracts, 
relating  to  the  sale  of  real  estate  [Art.  35,  19],  with  a 

[31 1] 


22 


Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 


reservation  as  to  the  competence  of  the  administrative  coun- 
cil; (4)  contracts  concerning  construction,  land  purchase  and 
delivery  when  the  amount  involved  exceeds  100,000  francs. 

The  circuit  directories  meet  in  conference  with  the  gen- 
eral directory  at  least  three  times  each  year,  but  possess  no 
administrative  powers.  They  participate  in  the  sessions  of 
circuit  railway  councils  and  through  their  president  also  in 
those  of  the  administrative  council,  with  deliberative 
powers. 

In  so  far  as  the  present  law  makes  no  exceptions  and 
restrictions,  excepting  the  powers  assigned  to  the  adminis- 
trative council,  the  entire  business  management  devolves 
upon  the  general  directory. 

T\\Q:ge7ieral di7'ectory\i2iS  the  following  powers  and  duties: 
(i)  the  administrative  and  judicial  representation  of  the 
railway  administrations  with  the  foreign  authorities,  in  so 
far  as  the  same  has  not  been  vested  in  the  circuit  directory 
[i  above];  (2)  the  nomination  of  all  officials  and  employes 
immediately  subordinate  to  it,  and  on  voluntary  nomination 
of  the  circuit  directory  of  all  superintendents  of  crews  in  the 
circuit;  (3)  establishing  norms  for  the  wages  of  officials  and 
employes  appointed  by  the  circuit  and  general  directories; 
(4)  fixing  salaries  within  the  scope  of  the  remuneration  law 
of  the  budget  of  officials  and  employes  appointed  by  it;  (5) 
drafting  the  annual  budget;  (6)  drawing  up  the  annual 
account;  (7)  preparation  of  the  annual  report  on  the  man- 
agement of  the  business;  (8)  preparation  of  all  other  busi- 
ness to  be  managed  by  the  administrative  council  and  not 
already  mentioned;  (9)  carrying  out  resolutions  of  the 
administrative  council;  (10)  establishing  the  necessary  reg- 
ulations, instructions  and  rules  for  the  various  branches  of 
the  service;  (ii)  rates;  (12)  the  control  of  operating  receipts 
[control  of  operation]  ; (13)  the  settlement  of  claimsarising 
from  joint  traffic  due  to  the  application  of  improper  rates 
and  to  incorrect  routing;  further,  claims  from  losses  or  dam- 
age of  goods  or  delays  in  passenger  and  freight  service,  in 

[312] 


Nation AivizATioN  of  Swiss  Railways.  23 

so  far  as  the  same  have  not  been  by  executive  ordinances  of 
the  Bundesrat  assigned  for  adjudication  to  the  circuit  direc- 
tory or  other  offices;  (14)  the  construction  of  timetables, 
including  the  care  for  their  proper  application  to  meet  the 
requirements  laid  down  by  the  circuit  directory  for  through 
traffic;  (15)  the  central  car  bureau;  (16)  the  construction  of 
new  buildings  and  making  repairs,  in  so  far  as  these  have 
not  been  left  to  the  circuit  directory ; ( 1 7)  making  agreements 
with  other  transportation  agents  relating  to  joint  traffic 
or  the  regulation  of  competition;  (18)  making  contracts 
with  other  railway  companies  concerning  the  construction 
and  common  use  of  depots,  stations,  tracks  and  appliances; 
(19)  making  contracts  relating  to  the  acquisition  of  real 
estate  necessary  for  constructions  conducted  by  the  general 
directory ; further,  all  contracts  relating  to  the  acquisition 
of  real  estate  for  other  building  purposes;  (20)  superin- 
tending the  personnel  of  the  pension,  aids  and  sick  funds 
bureaus,  with  the  co-operation  of  the  latter;  (21)  making, 
subject  to  the  power  of  the  administrative  council,  building 
and  delivery  contracts  for  all  structures  executed  by  the 
general  directory,  as  well  as  for  the  delivery  of  material  for 
the  superstructure,  for  the  purchase  of  fuel  and  oil  for  the 
machine  service  and  for  new  rolling  stock;  (22)  supervision 
of  the  business  management  of  the  circuit  directory,  and 
the  issuing  of  instructions  to  the  same  in  order  to  bring 
about  the  desirable  unity  and  harmony  in  the  administra- 
tion; (23)  the  adoption  of  resolutions  on  matters  reserved 
for  its  approval  [compare  4,  14,  17  and  19  above].  It  ap- 
portions business  among  its  members  according  to  depart- 
ments and  must  submit  quarterly  to  the  administrative 
council  summaries  of  the  operating  accounts  of  the  railways. 

By  the  side  of  these  executive  organs  of  the  administra- 
tion stand  the  circuit  railway  councils  and  the  administrative 
council,  whose  functions  are  more  of  a deliberative  nature. 
The  organization  and  powers  of  these  councils  enable  politi- 
cal and  economic  interests  to  assert  themselves  in  the 

[313] 


24  AnnaIvS  of  tiik  American  Academy. 

administration  in  such  a manner  as  to  harmonize  delibera- 
tive and  executive  functions. 

In  every  circuit  there  is  a circuit  railway  council,  com- 
posed of  fifteen  to  twenty  members,  of  whom  the  Bund- 
esrat  elects  four  and  the  cantons  eleven  to  sixteen.  They 
meet  regularly  once  every  quarter.  Their  business  scope 
embraces:  (i)  the  election  from  their  own  members  of  a 
president  and  vice-president,  who  hold  office  for  one  official 
period;  (2)  the  election  of  one  member  of  the  administra- 
tive council ; (3)  rendering  opinions  on  all  questions  con- 
cerning railway  affairs  [especially  time  tables  and  rates]  for 
transmission  to  the  authorities  who  have  jurisdiction  in 
such  matters.  These  opinions  may  be  requested  by  («) 
the  federal  authorities,  {U)  a cantonal  government,  {c)  the 
administrative  council,  {a)  the  representatives  of  agricul- 
tural, industrial  and  mercantile  organizations  or  of  other 
economic  unions,  {e)  one  of  their  own  members;  (4)  the 
approval  of  annual  budgets  and  accounts  worked  out  by  the 
circuit  directory  for  transmission  to  the  general  directory, 
and  of  reports  relating  to  the  same;  (5)  the  decision  upon 
all  credits  not  provided  for  in  the  budget,  or  those  which 
exceed  the  amounts  allowed  by  the  administrative  council, 
so  long  as  their  total  does  not  exceed  the  budget  by  more 
than  100,000  francs;  (6)  approval  of  the  quarterly  report 
of  the  circuit  directories  concerning  the  business  under  their 
charge.  Members  draw  only  mileage  and  per  diem  rates. 

The  administrative  cotincil  is  composed  of  fifty-five  mem- 
bers, of  whom  twenty-five  are  elected  by  the  Bundesrat, 
twenty-five  by  the  cantons  and  five  by  the  circuit  railway 
councils  from  their  own  numbers.  Of  those  elected  by  the 
Bundesrat  not  more  than  nine  shall  at  the  same  time  be 
members  of  the  national  council  or  of  the  council  of  states. 
The  Bundesrat  shall  take  care — so  says  the  law — that  in 
these  elections  agriculture,  trade  and  industry  shall  be  prop- 
erly represented.  Other  groups  of  interests,  such  as  the 
employes  of  the  federal  railways,  received  in  the  discussions 

[314] 


Nationai^ization  of  Swiss  Raiways.  25 

verbal  promises  from  the  Bundesrat  of  representation  in  the 
administrative  council.  The  administrative  council  meets 
regularly  every  quarter.  Its  members  likewise  receive  only 
mileage  and  per  diem  pay. 

The  business  scope  of  the  admmistrative  coujicil  embraces: 
(i)  supervision  of  the  entire  administration;  (2)  drawing 
up  the  annual  budget  for  transmission  to  the  Bundesrat;  (3) 
the  examination  of  annual  accounts  and  reports  on  the 
management  of  the  business  prepared  by  the  general  direc- 
tory for  transmission  to  the  Bundesrat ; (4)  fixing  the  prin- 
ciples of  rates  and  of  freight  classification,  with  regulative 
provisions  falling  within  the  scope  of  the  law;  (5)  fixing 
norms  for  constructing  train  schedules  [classification  of 
trains,  number  of  trains,  speed,  etc,]  ; (6)  leasing  railways 
not  owned  by  the  federation,  renting  its  own  lines  to  trans- 
porters and  the  disposition  of  secondary  enterprises;  (7) 
ratification  of  important  agreements  with  other  railway 
managements  concerning  the  common  use  of  depots, 
stations,  tracks  and  those  relating  to  joint  traffic  arrange- 
ments; (8)  drawing  up  norms  for  grading,  tracks,  super- 
structure and  rolling  stock;  (9)  rendering  decisions  relating 
to  the  alignment  of  new  routes,  adopting  plans  of  the  more 
important  depots  and  of  the  more  significant  repairs  and 
rebuilding  operations;  (10)  the  approval  of  building  and 
delivery  contracts  involving  more  than  500, 000 francs;  (ii) 
the  purchase  of  real  estate,  the  acquisition  of  which  does 
not  result  from  undertaking  the  building  of  railway  struc- 
tures, in  so  far  as  the  purchase  price  exceeds  200, 000  francs; 
likewise  the  sale  of  real  estate  whose  selling  price  exceeds 
50,000  francs;  (12)  determining  the  organization  of  the 
railway  service  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  executive 
ordinance  issued  by  the  Bundesrat;  (13)  drafting  motions 
for  the  appointment  of  the  general  and  circuit  directories; 
(14)  confirmation  of  elections  of  chiefs  of  the  divisions  in 
the  general  and  circuit  directories;  (15)  fixing  the  remu- 
neration of  officials  named  in  the  preceding  section  [14] 

[315] 


26 


Annai^  of  the  American  Academy. 


within  the  limits  of  the  law  as  regards  remuneration 
and  of  the  budget;  (i6)  establishing  the  general  conditions 
of  appointment  for  the  personnel;  (17)  framing  statutes  for 
the  pension  and  aids  funds;  (18)  examination  of  schemes 
for  improvements  in  operation  proposed  by  circuit  railway 
councils;  (19)  rendering  opinions  on  proposed  changes  in 
the  laws  and  ordinances  relating  to  federal  railways;  (20) 
rendering  opinions  on  petitions  for  the  building  of  new 
lines  oil  the  account  of  the  federation. 

Over  and  above  this  federal  railway  administration  stand 
the  federal  authorities,  the  assembly  and  the  Bundesrat  who 
may  exercise  the  following  special  powers  in  railway 
matters : 

The  Federal  Assembly. — (i)  Approval  of  the  manner  of 
making  loans  and  of  the  amortization  plan;  (2)  approval 
of  agreements  relating  to  the  acquisition  of  existing  railways, 
to  undertaking  the  operation  of  secondary  lines  and  to  the 
admission  of  the  federation  to  agreements  which  may  have 
been  made  between  primary  and  secondary  roads;  (3)  legis- 
lation on  the  general  principles  of  the  formation  of  rates; 
(4)  enacting  laws  relating  to  the  acquisition  or  the  building 
of  railways;  (5)  legislation  pertaining  to  remuneration ; (6) 
approval  of  the  annual  budget;  (7)  examination  and  accep- 
tance of  the  annual  account  and  of  the  report  on  business 
management. 

The  Bundesrat  has  power  over  (i)  the  issuing  of  an  execu- 
tive ordinance  for  this  law;  (2)  the  election  of  (<2)  twenty- 
five  members  of  the  administrative  council,  {b)  members  of 
the  general  and  circuit  directories,  {c)  four  members  of 
each  of  the  circuit  directories;  (3)  the  introduction  of  the 
following  measures  into  the  Swiss  councils:  {a)  annual 
budget,  annual  account  and  business  report;  {b)  motions 
relating  to  undertafking  the  operation  of  secondary  roads 
and  to  the  admission  of  the  federation  to  agreements 
relating  to  contracts  which  may  have  been  concluded  be- 
tween primary  and  secondary  railways,  (<r)  motions  relating 

[316] 


Nationalization  of  Swiss  Railways.  27 

to  the  building  of  new  railways  and  to  undertaking  the 
operation  of  existing  lines;  (4)  the  exercise  of  the  same 
powers  that  are  vested  in  the  Bundesrat  in  relation  to 
private  railways,  in  so  far  as  the  premises  of  these  powers 
apply  to  federal  railways;  (5)  the  approval  of  the  statutes 
governing  pension  and  aid  funds  of  officials  and  of  permanent 
employes;  (6)  the  issuing  of  the  necessary  regulations  for 
the  establishment  of  sick  funds. 

The  Result  of  the  Popular  Vote  on  the  Repurchase  Law. 

With  a participation  of  about  550,000  or  78.6  per  cent  of 
the  whole  number  of  qualified  voters,  the  repurchase  law 
was  adopted  by  a majority  of  over  200,000  votes. 

Both  as  regards  the  percentage  of  voters  participating  and 
the  numbers  voting,  there  has  been  no  more  general  expres- 
sion of  popular  opinion  since  the  adoption  of  the  present 
federal  constitution  in  1874.  In  the  cantons  of  the  lowlands 
the  interest  in  the  question  was  such  a lively  one  that  the 
canton  of  Zurich,  for  example,  shows  a participation  of  91  per 
cent,  St.  Gallen  83  per  cent  and  even  the  mountainous  can- 
tons, in  which  heavy  snowstorms  had  obstructed  communica- 
tions, indicate  a participation  of  80  per  cent  (Uri)  and  74 
per  cent  (Graiibunden).  There  is  no  canton,  indeed  almost 
no  commune,  in  the  whole  country,  which  did  not  surprise 
both  supporters  and  opponents  of  the  law  by  giving  an 
unexpectedly  large  majority  in  its  favor.  When,  on  the 
day  following  the  vote,  the  ^‘Zurcher  Post,”  wrote,  “the 
most  audacious  optimist  had  not  the  remotest  idea  of  the 
possibility  of  this  result;  we,  too,  anticipated  only  a 
majority  of  50,000  in  favor,  at  the  most,”  it  did  not  incor- 
rectly characterize  the  situation  before  the  election. 

The  result  demonstrated  that  the  gradual  development  of 
the  idea  of  state  railways,  to  which  we  referred  above,  and 
whose  manifold  elements  we  attempted  to  analyze,  had  been 
infused  into  all  parts  of  the  population.  The  idea  that  rail- 
ways should  belong  to  the  community  and  should  serve  its 

[317] 


28 


Annals  of  thk  American  Academy. 


interests  exclusively,  had  set  its  roots  down  deep  and  grown 
mightily  during  the  storms  of  fifty  years  of  exciting  railway 
history. 

It  required  only  an  external  stimulus  in  an  attractive 
form  and  a favorable  conjuncture  of  party  conditions,  which 
are  not  without  great  significance  in  a democratic  state  with 
a well- developed  political  schooling,  in  order  to  transform 
the  slumbering  idea  into  an  irresistible  enthusiasm  and  to 
unite  the  more  indifferent  and  vacillating  persons  with 
those  who  were  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  nationalization. 
Both  circumstances  combined  in  this  case  in  a high  degree. 
The  political  conditions  were  remarkably  favorable  to  the 
proposed  law. 

As  a political  antagonist  to  the  principle  of  the  law,  the 
federal  party  might  have  been  expected  to  offer  a united 
opposition,  but  just  then  this  party  was  extraordinarily 
split  up.  The  kernel  of  the  party  is  the  catholic,  conserva- 
tive party  of  the  old  Sonderbimd*  cantons,  Uri,  Schwyz, 
Unterwalden,  Luzern,  Zug,  Freiburg,  Wallis,  Tessin — one 
may  call  them  historical  federalists — cantons  which  are 
supposed  to  have  lost  more  than  the  others  through  the  new 
development  of  the  Eidge7iossenschaft,  To  these  are  joined 
the  catholic  conservative  minorities  of  the  central  and  west 
Swiss  cantons,  and  also  the  more  theoretical  federalists  of 
west  Switzerland,  who  represent  in  their  cantons  the  radical 
progressive  party.  This  party  has  always  formed  the  chief 
power  of  the  opposition  against  the  federal  government  and 
its  legislation.  This  time  such  a coalition  was  impossible. 

As  is  well  known,  the  liberal  party  has  been  at  the  head 
of  the  government  uninterruptedly  since  the  reorganization 
of  the  Eidgenossenschajt  in  1848,  and  it  was  not  until  1891, 
when  the  federal  councilor  Welti  resigned  after  the  defeat 
of  the  Central  Railroad  Repurchase  Act,  that  a representative 
of  the  conservative  minority  entered  the  Bundesrat.  At  that 

♦ A league  within  the  federation.  The  first  Sonderbund  was  formed  in  1832,  and 
comprised  the  cantons  of  Zurich,  Luzern,  Bern,  St.  Gallen,  Solutborn,  Thurgau 
and  Translator. 

[318] 


Nationai,ization  of  Swiss  Raiways. 


29 


time  its  leader,  Dr.  Zemp,  the  originator  of  the  present  rail- 
way repurchase  law,  was  elected. 

But  although  from  the  economic  and  political  point  of 
view  Switzerland  developed  in  a striking  manner  in  the 
forty-three  5^ears  during  which  the  administration  of  the 
country  was  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  progressive  and 
of  the  central  parties,  the  total  exclusion  of  a very  consid- 
erable minority  had  created  a feeling  of  depression  among 
wide  circles,  a feeling  which  frequently,  even  in  case  of 
commendable  bills,  gave  the  opposition  the  power  necessary 
to  bring  about  defeat.  This  factor  disappeared  entirely  in 
1891.  Indeed,  it  was  the  former  leader  of  the  catholic  con- 
servative and  federal  party,  a Swiss  German,  who  drew  up 
the  project  for  nationalization  and  eloquently  supported  it 
on  the  public  platform. 

This  made  it  possible  for  all  those  members  of  the  great 
conservative  party,  whose  past  did  not  forbid  every  depar- 
ture from  the  strictest  federalistic  principles,  to  approach  the 
repurchase  bill  without  prejudice.  Especially  the  catholic 
conservative  minority  of  the  central  and  east  Swiss  cantons 
— Soluthorn,  Aargau,  St.  Gallen,  Gradbiinden — did  this 
almost  unanimously;  and  even  in  the  old  centres  of  the 
federal  party — Unterwalden,  Zug,  Luzern  (the  home  of 
Zemp) — their  influence  was  undoubtedly  a powerful  one. 
The  west  Swiss  federalists,  whom  we  have  characterized  as 
theoretical  federalists,  were  likewise  made  to  waver  by  the 
fact  that  the  organization  of  the  future  administration  of 
the  federal  railways  was  to  be  made  as  independent  as  pos- 
sible of  the  federal  government,  and  also  by  the  promise  of 
the  federal  government  to  cut  a tunnel  through  the  Simplon. 

In  this  manner  the  power  of  the  historic  political  opposi- 
tion was  shattered,  while  another  party,  which  had  arisen 
in  recent  times  as  an  antagonist  of  the  federal  government 
and  of  its  legislative  activity,  the  social  democratic  party, 
was  not  an  opposing  factor,  because  it  had  advocated  the 
nationalization  of  the  railways. 

[319] 


30  Annai^  of  the  American  Academy. 

The  wide  field  for  the  “real”  and  “iiupartiar  ’ considera- 
tion of  the  question  was  thus  left  open.  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  conditions  for  repurchase  were  extremely 
favorable  for  a discussion  of  the  problem  on  these  grounds. 
The  discussion  centred  upon  the  message  of  the  Bundesrat 
accompanying  the  repurchase  law.  In  this  message  the  diffi- 
culties of  concessional  repurchase  were  overcome  with  almost 
playful  ease.  Starting  with  the  proposition,  which  should 
have  been  the  conclusion  of  the  investigation,  that  the  repur- 
chase of  the  railways  on  the  basis  of  the  charters  would 
prove  to  be  a profitable  transaction,  the  authors  of  the  message 
succeeded  in  calculating  a surprisingly  low  price  for  the 
railways  on  the  basis  of  the  charters  themselves.  With 
enviable  optimism  it  was  assumed  that  all  disputes  could 
be  construed  in  favor  of  the  purchaser.  It  was  attempted 
to  establish  a series  of  advantages  for  the  purchaser,  which 
in  earlier  trials  had  not  been  thought  of.  Then,  too,  there 
was  the  circumstance  that  both  in  the  message  and  in  public 
addresses  the  price  thus  estimated  was  assumed  to  be  the 
highest  sum  for  the  payment  of  which  the  state  could  be 
held. 

On  such  a basis  it  was  possible  to  predict  an  income  from 
the  operation  of  the  federal  railways,  which,  in  addition  to 
paying  interest  on  the  investment,  was  to  make  possible  the 
complete  maintenance  of  the  tracks  and  rolling  stock  out  of 
the  operating  receipts,  the  establishment  of  a reserve  fund, 
the  reduction  and  simplification  of  rates,  extension  of  the 
railway  network,  and  also  the  full  amortization  of  the  capi- 
tal invested,  within  sixty  years.  Wherever  doubts  were 
raised  against  this  they  were  summarily  dismissed  with  the 
axiom  of  constantly  increasing  traffic,  which  was  identified 
with  constantly  increasing  net  profits,  as  a matter  of  course. 

When  one  reflects  that  all  these  direct  and  indirect  advan- 
tages of  the  future  railways  were  promised  to  the  people  by 
numberless,  perhaps  more  well-meaning  than  well-informed, 
champions  of  the  federal  bill,  and  with  much  more  confi- 

[320] 


Nation AiyizATioN  of  Swiss  Raiways. 


31 


dence  and  certainty — a certainty  which  became  greater  as 
the  day  of  voting  came  nearer — than  the  originators  of  the 
law  themselves  possessed,  it  is  easily  possible  to  picture  to 
one’s  self  what  the  effect  must  have  been.  This,  then,  was 
another  and  very  important  reason  for  the  acceptance  of  the 
law : the  expectation  of  all  possible  improvements  in  trafific, 
besides  the  complete  amortization  of  the  capital  stock  in  a 
relatively  short  time  and  without  increased  burdens  on  the 
public. 

The  desire  for  independence  from  foreign  capital  was  also 
of  great  influence.  A large  part  of  the  shares  of  Swiss  rail- 
ways are  in  the  hands  of  foreign  capitalists,  and  although 
their  influence  on  the  administration  of  the  roads  was  not 
in  itself  a disturbing  one,  and  was,  besides,  restricted 
through  federal  legislation,  this  condition  was  generally 
looked  upon  as  undesirable.  It  does  not  reflect  honor  upon 
the  Freisinnige  party  that  it  could  not  entirely  resist  the 
temptation  to  make  popular  this  beautiful  idea  of  inde- 
pendence by  mixing  with  it  a tinge  of  anti-semitism. 

Against  all  these  arguments  little  opposition  was  shown 
by  the  antagonists.  The  special  knowledge  required  for  a 
successful  attack  on  the  statistics  upon  which  the  friends 
of  repurchase  supported  themselves,  was  at  the  disposal  of 
those  people  whose  close  connection  with  the  railway  com- 
panies and  their  administrators,  had  imposed  upon  them 
the  strictest  neutrality.  The  interests  of  such  persons  were 
more  or  less  opposed  to  entering  into  the  conflict.  Further- 
more, these  persons  probably  realized  that  it  would  be  im- 
possible by  means  of  criticism  directed  against  the  law 
under  consideration  and  the  accompanying  message  to  shat- 
ter the  popular  conviction  of  the  necessity  for  nationaliza- 
tion. 

The  chosen  representatives  of  the  system  of  private  rail- 
ways waived  every  opportunity  for  public  discussion  just 
as  they  had  done  twenty  years  before,  when,  through  their 
withdrawal  from  the  federal  assembly,  they  gave  up  the 

[321] 


32  Annates  of  the  American  Academy. 

possibility  of  defending  the  interests  of  the  railway  compa- 
nies in  the  councils. 

Whoever  dared  to  question  the  danger  of  being  dependent 
upon  foreign  capital,  or  who  could  not  recognize  nationali- 
zation as  a proper  remedy  for  the  same,  or  who  could  even 
point  to  the  services  of  foreign  capital  to  Swiss  railways,  had 
to  run  the  risk  of  being  accused  of  being  wanting  in 
patriotism.  Hence  it  was  that  the  position  of  the  opponents 
was  from  the  first  a weak  one;  they  did  not  form  a closely 
organized  party ; their  arguments  received  no  support  from 
authoritative  quarters  and  were  not  popular.  The  hopes 
for  the  future  which  the  friends  of  repurchase  shared  so 
fully  and  so  effectively,  did  not,  in  the  nature  of  things, 
admit  of  a real  discussion. 

The  adoption  of  the  law  concerning  railway  repurchase  is 
a triumph  of  the  idea  of  centralization,  a triumph  of  the 
idea  of  state  socialism,  and  is  an  expression  of  the  self-con- 
scious, future-enjoying  and  optimistic  frame  of  mind  of  the 
Swiss  people.  That  this  mental  feeling  was  oftentimes 
artificially  kindled  and  nourished,  that  the  means  employed 
for  this  purpose  were  not  all  sincere  and  worthy,  that  the 
actual  conditions  lead  the  thoughtful  to  fear  bitter  disap- 
pointment in  many  respects  should  not  obscure  the  good 
features  of  the  law.  Everybody  should  work  to  make  the 
result  of  the  vote  of  February  20,  1898,  productive  of  the 
greatest  possible  good. 

Hans  Dieteer. 

Luzern . 


Railroad^  Canal^  and  Steamboat  Statistics. 


507 


FRENCH  RAILROADS. 

The  imperial  government,  as  is  well  known,  has  long  favored  the  amalgamation 
of  the  leading  lines  of  railroads  in  this  country,  and  is  well  satisfied  to  see  them 
reduced  to  five  or  six  companies,  enjoying  an  immunity  from  that  private  and 
public  competition  which  has  often  proved  so  fatal  to  railway  enterprise  else- 
where. But  the  French  railways,  though  undoubtedly  the  best  established,  the 
most  remunerative,  and,  upon  the  whole,  perhaps  the  best  administered  in  the 
world,  have  not  been  allowed  to  gain  their  present  position  and  privileges  with- 
out paying  some  equivalents.  In  return  for  its  patronage  and  protection,  the 
government  has  imposed  the  condition  of  carrying  out  and  completing  a vast 
number  of  branches,  of  great  service  and  benefit  to  the  localities  through  which 
they  pass,  but  by  no  means  certain  to  be  remunerative  for  the  amount  of  capital 
expended  on  them.  To  carry  on  these  works,  the  companies  have  been  compelled 
to  issue  their  obligations  (bonds  or  debentures)  in  a continuous  stream,  chiefly 
through  the  intervention  of  the  Bank  of  France,  which,  at  their  request,  under- 
took to  negotiate  240,000,000  worth  of  their  securities,  making  advances  the 
meanwhile,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  companies.  The  effect  of  this  state  of  things 
has  been,  in  the  first  place,  to  keep  the  public  stocks  at  their  present  low  figure, 
by  daily  feeding  the  market  with  the  issue  of  these  railway  bonds,  and  in  the 
next  place,  to  cause  the  credit  of  the  companies  to  become  seriously  affected,  both 
by  the  redundancy  of  their  paper  in  the  market,  and  also  by  the  apprehension  of 
the  public  that  the  numerous  branch  lines  which  they  are  compelled  to  construct 
would  tend  to  anything  rather  than  to  increase  the  dividends  of  the  shareholders. 
Under  these  circumstances,  the  railway  companies  have  been,  for  some  time  past, 
appealing  to  the  administration  for  the  modification  of  a contract  of  which  they 
profess  to  find  the  conditions  too  hard  for  them  ; and  an  agreement  for  their 
relief  appears  to  have  been  at  last  come  to  with  the  Minister  of  Public  Works. 
The  course  adopted  seems,  in  fact,  to  amount  to  a guaranty  to  4fr.  68c.  per  cent 
on  the  part  of  the  government.  That  is  to  say,  a dividend  is  to  be  paid  first  at 
the  rate  of  the  last  returns  of  profits  per  kilometre,  and  the  residue  is  to  be  applied 
to  working  expenses.  If  there  be  more  than  sufficient  for  the  latter,  the  supplies 
will  go  to  increase  the  dividend  ; if  less,  then  the  government  steps  in  to  make 
up  the  deficiency  to  the  extent  of  4.68  per  cent.  In  addition  to  the  above  arrange- 
ment, it  has  been  decided  that  no  more  railway  paper  shall  be  negotiated  daily 
by  the  Bank  of  France.  One  hundred  and  sixty-five  millions  of  obligations  have 
been  already  so  issued  ; the  remaining  seventy -five  millions  are  to  be  issued  at 
once,  and  the  money  raised  by  public  subscription,  as  in  the  case  of  the  State 
loans  during  the  war. 


CINCINNATI,  HAMILTON, 

AND  DAYTON 

RAILROAD. 

No.  of 

Passenger 

Freight 

Mails  and 

Years. 

passengers. 

earnings. 

earnings. 

express. 

Total. 

185'2-53... 

236,828 

1191,700  93 

1122,377  25 

$7,714  99 

$321,793  17 

1853-54... 

342,954 

274,650  39 

176,142  11 

12,228  95 

468,021  45 

1854-55. . . 

370,189 

259,915  35 

211,562  79 

12,142  34 

483,620  48 

1855-56 . . . 

352,451 

236,568  12 

221,697  64 

18,620  04 

471,885  70 

1856-57. . . 

862,630 

231,571  64 

268,819  20 

17,943  21 

518,333  95 

1857-53... 

370,957 

232,596  95 

214,272  37 

18,868  93 

465,738  19 

508 


Journal  of  Mining^  Manufactures^  and  Art, 


JOURNAL  OF  MINlNCi,  MA  MI  FACT  I RES,  AND  ART. 

ESTIMATES  OF  COAL  AREA. 

P.  W.  SiiKAFEH,  Ps(j.,  (Jivil  and  Mining'  Kngincer,  of  I’ottsvillo,  rcnnsyl- 
vania,  lias  presented  several  estimates  of  the  area  of  the  anthracite  coal  n-gions 
of  Pennsylvania,  together  with  statistics  pertaining  to  the  bitnminons  coal  area 
of  this  country  and  of  Kurojie.  Po  this  is  added  a few  remarks  n{)on  the  com- 
parative importance  of  our  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  fields  at  iiresent  and 
in  the  future  : — 

ESTIMATES  OF  THE  PENNSYLVANIA  ANTHRACITE  COAL  FIELPS. 

Square  miles.  Acres. 


Mr.  Packer’s  report  to  the  Legislature y76  624,000 

Mr.  S.  B.  Fisher — 

1.  Southern  or  Schuylkill  Coal  Field 119  76,9.50 

2.  Middle  Coal  Field,  iiicliuling  the  Mahanoy  Basin,  69,460  acres  183  86,625 

3.  AVyoming  or  Northern  Field 120  76,806 


Total,  according  to  S.  B.  Fisher 372  238,280 

R.  C.  Tayhir— 

1.  Southern  or  Schuylkill  Coal  Field 164  101,960 

2.  Middle,  containing  the  Mahanoy  and  Shamokin  Coal  Basin.  1 15  70,600 

3.  Wyoming  or  Northern  Basin 118  76,520 

Total,  according  to  Taylor 397  254,080 


ESTIMATE  MADE  FROM  THE  OUTLINES  OF  THE  COAL  FIELDS  ON  ROGERS’  NEW  MAP,  BY 

P.  W.  6HEAFEB. 

1,  Southern  or  Schuylkill  Coal  Fields. 

Square  miles.  Acres. 


East  of  Tamaqua 16  10,240 

Taraaqua  to  Pottsville 36  23,040 

Pottsville  to  fork  of  the  Basin 65  36,200 

North  Fork,  Lykens  Valley  prong 16  10,240 

South  “ Dauphin  “ 15  9,600 

North  Mine  Hill  Range 8 5,120 

Total  Southern  Field 146  98,440 

2.  Middle  Coal  Field. 

Shamokin  District 50  32,000 

Mahanoy  District 41  26,240 

Beaver  Meadow  2.3  square  miles  of  mammoth  bed,  in  all 6.4  4,096 

Hazleton  Distr’t  3 “ “ “ 13  8,320 

Big  Black  Creek  2.3  “ “ “ “ 13.3  8,512 

Little  “ 0.6  “ “ “ 2.3  1,472 

8.1  square  miles  of  mammoth  bed,  total 126  80,640 

8.  Wyoming  Coal  Field 198  126,720 


Total,  as  estimated  from  Rogers’  map 470  300,800 


It  is  also  interesting  to  consider  the  relative  areas  in  the  various  coal  fields 
which  arc  drained  by  the  several  great  water  courses  which  form  the  outlets  to 
the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  course  of  trade  has,  however,  diverted  the  product 
of  certain  portions  of  the  coal  fields  from  the  natural  channels  ; hence,  two  sys- 
tems of  drainage  may  be  taken  into  account — 1st.  The  natural  drainage  of  the 


179 


Foreign  Affairs 

trying  to  obtain  a virtual  protectorate  over  Morocco.  What  I 
o blame  her  for  is  her  inability  to  recognise  that  it  is  not  in  her 
p6^er  to  upset  the  Treaty  of  Algeciras,  and  that  this  being  so, 
the  continuance  of  her  occupation  constitutes  an  obstacle  to  any 
genuine  pacification  of  Morocco. 

An  \ early  settlement  of  the  succession  to  the  throne,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  recognition  of  Mulai  Hafid  as  the’  lawful 
Sovereign  of  Morocco,  is  required  in  order  to  remove  not  only 
an  obstacle  to  the  pacification  of  the  Moorish  State,  but  a 
possible  danger  to  the  peace  of  Europe.  Under  these  circum- 
stances there  is  no  inconsistency  between  the  German  Emperor’s 
expression  of  his  confidence  in,  and  his  desire  for,  the  maintenance 
of  European  peace,  and  the  subsequent  declaration  of  the  German 
Government  that  the  continuance  of  the  French  occupation  is 
neither  in  the  interest  of  Morocco  nor  of  European  peace.  When 
this  declaration  was  made  the  Parisian  press  was  well-nigh 
unanimous  in  declaring  that  France  would  never  submit  to 
dictation  on  the  part  of  Germany.  But  as  soon  as  it  appeared 
that  Germany  meant  her  declaration  to  be  taken  seriously  the 
French  Germanophobe  press  discovered  that  no  dictation  was 
involved  in  the  Imperial  declaration,  but  that  the  only  criticism 
to  which  it  was  liable  was  a want  of  tact  on  the  part  of  its 
author,  and  that  lack  of  tact  wa&^not  a matter  concerning  which 
France  need  take  umbrage. 

An  even  more  irrational  outcry  was  raised  in  France  and 
repeated  in  England  about  the  recent  visit  of  the  German  Consul- 
General  to  Fez  as  a breach  of  good  faith  on  the  part  of  Germany. 
All  that  IS  known  about  the  visit  in  question  is  that  Dr.  Vassel 
made  a brief  journey  from  Tangiers  to  Fez.  There  is  no  evi- 
dence whatever  to  show  that  he  was  sent  on  a political  mission 
to  Mulai  Hafid,  or  that  he  had  any  interview  with  the  de  facto 
Sultan  of  Morocco.  Every  other  European  Power  would  have 
had  an  equal  right  with  Germany  to  send  its  representative  to 
Fez  if  It  had  seen  cause  to  do  so.  Dr.  Vassel’s  own  statement 
IS  that  he  went  to  Fez  in  order  to  protect  the  interests  of  certain 
German  subjects  residing  in  the  capital  of  Morocco.  If  this 
statement  is  true  he  simply  fulfilled  one  of  the  elementary  duties 
mcumhent  on  the  representative  of  every  European  Power  with 
the  exception  of  our  own.  In  the  British  Foreign  Office  ’every 
representative  of  England  abroad  is  prohibited  by  an  unwritten 
law  from  using  his  influence  to  obtain  concessions  for  his  own 
countrymen,  or  to  exert  his  authority  to  secure  any  British  con- 
cessionaires in  the  event  of  their  rights  being  disregarded  by  the 
Government  to  which  he  is  accredited.  In  such  matters  the  Mlicy 
of  every  Continental  and  Trans-Atlantic  Power  is  diametricallv 
opposed  to  that  of  England.  ^ 

N 2 


180 


The  Empire  Review 


7 


/ 


Which  of  these  two  policies  is  right  is  a question  ])eyon(l  the 
scope  of  this  article^  All  I need  say  now  is  that  every  British 
merchant  or  capitalist  ^.contractor  who  desires  to  obtain  conces- 
sions in  foreign  countries  is%Qpelessly  handicapped  by  the  know- 
ledge that  he  can  expect  no  suppo^  from  the  representatives  of 
Great  Britain,  while  the  subjects  of  ev^y  other  powerful  country 
can  rely  upon  the  active  and  cordial  support  of  their  representa- 
tives in  any  reasonable  demand  either  for  the^)^nting  of  conces- 
sions or  for  securing  the  fulfilment  of  the  concesstaps  on  which 
they  have  embarked  their  money,  their  time,  and  their  energy. 

TUB  HEDJAS  RAILWAY. 

It  has  always  struck  me  as  curious  how  little  attention  is 
attracted  in  England  to  great  enterprises  outside  the  bounds  of 
the  four  seas  whose  success  or  failure  must  produce  immense 
effect  on  the  commerce  of  the  world.  Great  Britain  is  out  and 
away  the  greatest  commercial  Power  in  the  globe,  and  as  any 
serious  diminution  of  our  world-wide  trade  might  prove  fatal  to 
the  prosperity,  not  only  of  the  United  Kingdom  but  of  the 
British  Empire,  it  seems  unintelligible  at  first  sight  that  our 
nation,  as  a body,  should  have  paid  so  little  attention  to  a variety 
of  enterprises  which  have  changed,  or  may  change,  the  trade 
relations  existing  between  England  and  her  rivals  in  the  struggle 
for  commercial  supremacy.  I am  told  by  critics,  for  the 
most  part  of  English  birth  and  race,  that  our  national  defect  is 
a lack  of  imagination.  I do  not  share  this  view  myself.  I am 
inclined  to  assert  that  it  is  the  lack  of  imagination  which  has 
proved  the  salvation  of  our  country.  I have  long  thought  that 
the  wisest  and  the  finest  of  Mr.  Gladstone’s  recorded  utterances 
is  the  one  in  which  he  described  the  British  Empire  as  a blind 
Atlas  staggering  on  beneath  the  weight  of  the  world.  It  was 
Atlas’s  blindness  which  has  saved  us.  If  our  world-carrier  had  had 
his  sight  restored  and  could  have  realised  the  pitfalls,  precipices, 
and  parapets  which  he  would  have  to  encounter  every  step  he  took, 
he  would  have  refused  to  proceed  further. 

Happily  or  unhappily,  as  the  future  must  decide,  our  lack  of 
imagination  has  had  the  same  effect  on  our  progress  towards  the 
fulfilment  of  our  Imperial  mission  as  the  loss  of  sight  had  on  the 
Atlas  imagined  by  Mr.  Gladstone.  Hardly  seeing  before  our 
noses,  wo  as  a nation  have  stumbled  on  step  by  step  till  we  have 
well-nigh  reached  the  goal  of  our  Imperial  progress.  We  shall 
pull  through  somehow  or  other  is  the  sentiment  which  has 
hitherto  animated  the  British  mind  in  all  the  countless  difficulties 
wo  have  had  to  surmount.  Wo,  as  a nation,  have  trusted  to 
]^>ritish  pluck  and  luck,  and  this  trust  so  far  has  always  been 
ustified  by  the  result. 


Foreign  Affairs  181 

We  never  troubled  ourselves  as  a nation  about  the  construction 
of  the  Siberia  railway,  the  Suez  or  the  Kiel  Canals  till  they 
were  constructed.  We  pay  no  attention  to  the  progress  of  the 
Panama  Canal ; yet  if  it  should  prove  successful  it  will  give  the 
United  States  absolute  control  of  the  sea-trade  route  between  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  Oceans.  We  find  out  with  surprise  that 
Turkey  has  in  the  course  of  five  years  constructed,  almost  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  British  public,  a railway  which  may  con- 
ceivably render  Jeddah,  instead  of  Port  Said  or  Suez,  the  port  of 
departure  and  arrival  for  the  passenger  traffic  between  Europe  and 
British  India,  and  we  still  console  ourselves  by  repeating  mentally 
we  “ shall  pull  through  somehow  or  other.” 

What  renders  this  indifference  more  astonishing  is  the  fact  that 
only  two  years  ago  the  construction  of  the  Damascus-Medina  rail- 
way gave  rise  to  a scare  which  for  a time  disturbed  the  tranquillity 
of  the  Foreign  Office  and  its  representatives  abroad.  When  the  line 
had  got  as  far  as  the  Sinai  desert  the  Turkish  contractors  put  up 
two  pillars  upon  territory  which  Egypt  asserted  was  within 
Egyptian  territory.  As  there  never  had  been  any  formal  de- 
limitation of  the  frontier  showing  where  Turkey  ended  and  where 
Egypt  begun,  and  as  the  desert  was  occupied  by  nomad  tribes 
who  shifted  their  tents  from  one  well  to  another,  and  who  practi- 
cally paid  no  tribute  to  either  the  Sultan  or  the  Khedive  except 
on  the  rare  occasions  when  their  encampments  were  raided  either 
by  Turkish  or  Egyptian  troops,  it  was  impossible  to  ascertain 
where  the  pillars,  raised  to  mark  the  frontier,  ought  by  rights  to 
have  been  placed.  The  Egyptians  attached  no  value  to  the  Sinai 
desert  from  which  they  derived  neither  profit  nor  glory,  and  would 
have  probably  been  content  to  cede  it  to  Turkey  for  a very  mode- 
rate consideration. 

Egypt,  however,  especially  of  late,  has  become  the  chosen 
home  of  idle  rumours,  and  some  wiseacre  started  the  ingenious 
theory  that  Turkey,  acting  at  the  instigation  of  Germany,  was 
going  to  divert  the  Damascus-Medina  line  so  as  to  bring  it  into 
close  proximity  to  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  thus 
enable  a Turkish  army,  commanded  by  German  officers,  to  cross 
the  Canal  whenever  they  wished  to  invade  the  Delta.  The  idea 
was  rank  absurdity,  but  in  those  days  no  charge  insinuated  against 
Germany  was  too  absurd  to  meet  with  credence.  Moreover,  it 
had  long  been  an  article  of  faith  at  the  British  Agency  that  the 
Egyptians  regarded  any  encroachment  upon  Egypt  on  the  part 
of  Turkey  as  an  insult  to  Egypt,  and  therefore  our  then  Consul- 
General  conceived  it  to  be  a high  stroke  of  State  policy  for 
England  to  come  forward  as  the  champion  of  Egyptian  rights 
in  the  desert  of  Sinai.  Special  missions  were  sent  out  from 
Cairo  to  study  the  frontier  question,  while  the  Sultan  and 


182 


The  Empire  Review 

his  Ministers  were  given  to  understand  that  any  attempt  to 
encroach  upon  Egyptian  territory  would  meet  with  distinct  op- 
position on  the  part  of  the  British  Government.  Instead,  however, 
of  the  Egyptians  being  impressed  with  our  vindication  of  Egyptian 
independence,  the  British  Agency  learnt  with  dismay  that  if  the 
Turkish  troops  had  carried  out  the  intention  ascribed  to  them 
and  had  crossed  the  Suez  Canal,  they  would  have  been  welcomed 
by  the  great  mass  of  the  population  of  Lower  Egypt.  Happily  no 
opportunity  presented  itself  for  proving  whether  a Turkish  in- 
vasion of  Egyptian  territory  would  have  been  greeted  with  indig- 
nation or  enthusiasm.  The  Sultan  was  only  bent  upon  completing 
his  grand  conception  of  a railway,  which  was  ultimately  to  place 
the  whole  of  the  Moslem  world  in  direct  and  easy  communication 
with  the  sacred  places  of  Islam,  and  had  no  motive  for  picking  a 
quarrel  with  England  in  Egypt.  So  the  obnoxious  pillars  which, 
according  to  our  British  contention,  cut  off  a narrow  strip  of 
waterless  desert  from  the  vassal  State,  were  replaced  in  their 
former  positions,  and  England  was  entitled  to  claim  that  she  had 
won  a diplomatic  victory. 

It  seems  extremely  doubtful  whether  the  Saltan  ever  contem- 
plated bringing  the  Damascus-Medina  line  to  any  point  within 
easy  marching  distance  of  the  Suez  Canal.  To  have  done  so 
would  have  necessitated,  even  if  England  had  offered  no  objection, 
a prolongation  of  the  railway  dipping  down  southwards  into  the 
Sinai  desert  without  rhyme  or  reason  and  then  returning  north- 
wards so  as  to  avoid  the  bay  of  Akaba.  We  now  know  what  our 
British  authorities  in  Egypt  never  seem  to  have  realised  before, 
that  the  Hedjas  railway  was  constructed  by  the  Sultan  at  his  own 
cost  or  out  of  moneys  which  came  into  his  hands  as  the  absolute 
ruler  of  Egypt,  and  was  therefore  planned  and  constructed  with 
as  much  economy  as  was  consistent  with  efficiency. 

How  far  it  was  constructed  with  forced  labour  is  a matter  on 
which  I can  express  no  opinion,  having  no  knowledge  whatever. 
I should  say  it  was  well-nigh  certain  the  workmen  were  paid,  if  at 
all,  in  the  most  niggardly  and  irregular  fashion,  but  it  is  most 
difficult  to  over-estimate  the  sacrifices  that  Mahometans  will  make 
in  order  to  promote  the  interests  of  Islam ; and  it  is  quite  possible, 
if  not  probable,  that  Abdul  Hamid,  the  object  of  Mr.  Gladstone’s 
vituperation,  may  have  inspired  his  fellow-believers  with  the  idea 
that  the  construction  of  a railway  to  Medina  and  Mecca  was  a 
work  which  would  lead  to  the  spread  of  Islam  and  to  the  glorifica- 
tion of  Allah  and  his  chosen  prophet.  Whatever  may  be  thought 
of  the  theological  advantages  secured  by  the  Hedjas  railway,  it  is 
impossible  to  dispute  its  material  advantages.  The  line  in  question, 
when  carried  on  as  it  infallibly  will  be  to  Mecca,  will  practically 
command  the  custom  of  all  Mahometan  communities  in  Asia 


Foreign  Affairs 


183 


Minor,  in  North  Africa,  in  Eussia,  in  Bosnia  and  Herzgovina, 
in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  in  the  Soudan,  in  the  Holy  Land  and 
even  in  Egypt. 

If  there  is  one  thing  besides  the  faith  of  Islam  upon  which 
Mussulmen  of  all  countries  are  agreed,  it  is  the  dislike  of 
travelling  by  sea,  and  it  is  as  certain,  as  any  future  event  can 
be,  that  whenever  there  is  communication  between  the  sacred 
places  and  the  Mahometan  countries  by  railways,  the  sea  routes 
will  be  driven  out  of  the  field.  I could  never  realise  for  myself 
what  the  tangible  advantages  of  visiting  the  holy  places  were  to 
the  followers  of  the  Prophet,  beyond  the  privilege  of  wearing  a 
green  turban  and  thus  letting  everybody  know  that  you  had  seen 
the  Kaaba,  an  achievement  which  both  my  friends.  Sir  Eichard 
Burton  and  Mr.  Giffard  Palgrave,  asserted  they  had  done,  but 
which  they  each  denied  that  the  other  had  accomplished.  In 
some  vague  way  all  Mussulmen  seem  to  be  of  opinion  that  if  they 
die  after  worshipping  at  Mecca  and  Medina  they  will  be  under  the 
special  protection  of  the  prophet  of  the  one  God,  and  that  to  secure 
this  protection  they  are  willing  to  incur  any  amount  of  discomfort, 
labour,  risk  and  expenditure  which  may  be  necessary  to  secure 
this  hypothetical  object. 

I should  be  the  last  to  assert  that  the  pilgrimages  to 
Mecca  are  not  the  genuine  expression  of  an  honest  belief ; and 
if  Turks,  Arabs,  Bedouins  and  Egyptians  swarm  year  after  year 
in  increasing  numbers  to  the  sacred  shrines  of  Islam,  I can 
only  congratulate  them  on  having  now  to  discharge  their  duty 
to  their  creed  at  less  expense,  less  weariness  and  less  risk  than 
they  have  been  able  to  do  before  “ Abdul  the  damned  ” — to  quote 
Mr.  Watson  the  poet — undertook  to  construct  a railway  at  his 
own  cost  and  risk  to  facilitate  the  one  heart  desire  of  every  one 
of  his  fellow-believers  to  worship  before  his  death  at  the  holy 
places  of  Islam.  I expect  that  before  long  the  steamers  which 
ply  between  Suez  and  Jeddah  will  cease  to  pay  their  expenses ; 
that  the  sacred  carpet  which  is  despatched  yearly  from  Cairo  to 
Mecca  will  be  forwarded  as  a railway  parcel ; and  that  the 
ceremonies  of  the  departure  and  return  of  the  holy  carpet,  which 
have  hitherto  formed  the  delight  of  Cook’s  tourists  and  of  the 
Cairo  populace,  will  have  become  as  obsolete  as  the  game  of 
karagouss  which  I have  often  seen  played  upon  what  is  now  the 
European  quarter,  but  what  was  then  a tract  of  desert  sand. 

PROaRBSS^P'<Cf^B  TURKISH  RBVOLUTION, 

I confess  that  I have  not  hith^o  given  the  Young  Turkish 
party  full  credit  for  the  moderationYbud  good  sense  they  have 
displayed  since  the  coup  d'Uat,  which  c^us.ed  Abdul  Hamid’s 


184 


The  Empire  Review 


precipitate  abdication.  It  is,  I think,  o])vious  that  the  Turkisli 
officers  who  rose  in  rebellion  against  the  Commander  of  the 
Faithful,  revolted  against  his  rule  not  as  the  spiritual  liead  of 
Islam,  but  as  the  temporal  ruler  who  had  revoked  the  constitution 
he  had  granted  to  Turkey  at  Midhat  Pasha’s  instance.  They 
could  hardly  have  been  blamed  if,  with  the  view  of  securing 
their  own  safety,  they  had  insisted  upon  the  Sultan’s  deposition. 
If  this  is  so  they  are  surely  deserving  of  high  commendation 
for  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  the  maintenance  of  Abdul 
Hamid  upon  the  throne  was  manifestly  a gain  to  the  con- 
stitutional government  and  for  acting  on  the  above  conclusion 
promptly  and  loyally. 

The  Young  Turks  are  entitled  also  to  credit  for  their  refusal 
to  make  any  serious  reprisals  on  the  morrow  of  their  unforeseen 
triumph  and  for  their  sincere  attempt  to  enlist  the  sympathies  of 
the  Bulgarian,  Servian  and  Greek  inhabitants  of  Macedonia  in 
support  of  constitutional  government  throughout  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  of  which  Macedonia  has  now,  more  than  ever  heretofore, 
become  part  and  parcel.  I doubt,  however,  the  moderation  and 
good  sense  exhibited  by  the  leaders  of  the  military  revolution 
doing  much  to  reconcile  the  Bulgarians  and  the  Serbs  of  Mace- 
donia to  their  permanent  incorporation  within  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  Just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  military  insurrection  in 
Turkey,  the  long-cherished  hopes  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and 
especially  of  Bulgaria,  seemed  to  be  on  the  very  eve  of  fulfilment. 
At  the  instigation,  I presume,  of  the  Macedonian  Protection 
Committee,  Sir  Edward  Grey  had  consented  to  throw  a thunder- 
bolt into  the  Turkish  camp. 

The  general  purport  of  Sir  Edward’s  proposal  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows.  The  Powers  interested  in  the  Macedonian 
question  were  to  present  a Collective  Note  to  the  Porte  enume- 
rating the  reforms  required  in  their  opinion  to  secure  the  pacifica- 
tion of  Macedonia,  and  intimating  that  if  these  demands  were  not 
accepted  the  Powers  would  take  collective  action  to  secure  tlieir 
enforcement.  How  far  the  British  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 
Affairs  was  justified  in  assuming  thaJ  he  could  . rely  upon  the 
unanimous  support  of  the  other  Powers,  and  especially  upon  that 
of  Bussia  and  Austria,  I have  no  means  of  saying.  It  would, 
however,  be  inconsistent  with  the  well-deserved  reputation  of  Sir 
Edward  Grey  for  integrity  and  straightforward  honesty  to  sup- 
pose that  he  had  not  secured  the  co-operation  of  the  Powers  in 
question  ])efore  he  proposed  to  issue  this  ultimatum,  affd  had 
apparently  communicated  its  purport  to  the  Bulgarian  Govern- 
ment. The  news  tliat  the  Concert  of  Europe  was  prepared-  to 
take  joint  action  to  compel  the  acceptance  by  the  Sultan  of  condi- 
tions such  as  tlui  appointment  of  an  independent  and  irremov 


HUNT’S 


MERCHANTS’  MAGAZINE 

AND 

COMMERCIAL  REVIEW, 


MAY,  1 853. 


Art.  I.— HISTORY  QF  THE  ENGLISH  RAILWAYS.^ 

Railroads,  as  everybody  has  sagely  observed,  belong  entirely  to  the 
Present  Day  ; Yesterday  has  no  claim  whatever  to  proffer  in  regard  to  either 
their  rearing  or  their  paternity.  Born  and  bred  in  This  Age — the  ofispring 
of  the  very  period  to  which  they  have  given  name  and  character — nursed 
by  the  tender  hands  of  yet  Living  projectors,  and  pushed  to  their  existing 
development  by  a race  of  enthusiasts  and  capitalists  whose  grandfather 
generation  was  ours,  also,  they  are  still,  and  for  a time  yet  will  be,  regarded 
among  the  newest  of  the  great  triumphs  achieved  by  the  Invention  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century — as,  indeed,  one  of  the  very  juvenilities  of  Modern  Pro- 
gr^s.  The  Slow  Coach  has  not  yet  become  dilapidated  under  its  shed,  nor 
has  the  deep  rut  of  its  wheels  been  obliterated  from  the  old  mail-route.  There 
are  hundreds,  who  by  whatever  occasion  recurring  to  their  former  journey- 
ings,  are,  on  even  the  most  public  routes,  at  once  afflicted  with  the  uneasy 
motion  of  the  straining  vehicle,  as  it  jogs  along  over  the  unequal  road, 
creeping  lazily  up  steep  hill-sides  and  rolling  swiftly  down  to  the  bottom  of 
deep  vales.  They  shudder,  yet,  as  they  are  brought  to  the  middle  of  the 
trembling  old  bridge  they  have  so  often  crossed  at  the  risk  of  their  necks ; 
and  shiver,  when  they  remember  the  painful  cold  of  the  long  way,  and  of 
the  wallowings  they  were  obliged  to  make  on  foot  through  the  huge  snow- 
drifts, in  which  both  stage  and  horses  were  sometimes  almost  impassably 
imbedd^.  They  feel  acutely,  still,  the  unhealed  ear-lacerations,  the  inces- 
sant infliction  for  hours  and  days,  of  elderly  ladies  with  a very  jagged  treble, 
and  of  respectable  old  gentlemen  whose  personal  histories  were  illimitable 

* A History  of  the  English  Railway  ; its  Social  Relations  and  Revelations.  1820-45.  By  John 
Francis.  Author  of  the  “ History  of  the  Bank  of  England— its  Times  and  Traditions ; ” and  “ Chron- 
rlcles  and  Characters  of  the  Stock  Exchange.”  2 vols.  London : Longman,  Brown,  Green  & Long- 
mans. 1851. 


632 


Ilhlory  of  the  English  Railways. 

ill  adventure  and  experiment,  and  wliose  ancient  maxim'»,  trifling  anecdotes, 
and  milky  witticisms  were,  severally,  legion.  They  feel,  too,  the  heavy 
gloom  of  the  wearying  silence,  that,  at  other  times,  reigned  for  miles  and 
miles,  when  every  passenger  seemed  to  cherish  his  taciturnity  as  dearly  as 
his  honor;  and  startle  again  from  this  determined  lethargy,  at  the  oxcito- 
ing  incident  of  an  u2-)set,  that  dread  of  all  stage-wayfar  is,  in  which,  if  the 
more  serious  accidents  of  killing  or  the  breaking  of  bones  did  not  < ccur, 
there  were,  at  least,  bruised  heads,  sprained  wrists,  merciless  disfigurement 
of  new  chapeaus  and  best  bonnets,  and  such  sudden  shaking  up  of  the  whole 
internal  system  of  the  whole  little  coach-community,  and  such  dreadful  agi- 
tation of  their  nervous  system,  as,  altogether,  were  not  recovered  of  for  the 
remainder  of  the  journey,  however  long  that  might  be.  The  coachman  him- 
self, not  only  survives,  but  is  the  actual  driver  of  the  iron  horse,  or  ofiiciates 
as  conductor  or  breakman,  and  different  as  his  clothes  and  his  character  ap- 
pear from  what  they  were,  the  unmistakable  evidence  of  his  identity  is 
easily  found.  You  shall  see  in  his  garret  or  as  the  plaything  of  his  child- 
ren, the  very  whip,  perfect  in  handle,  lash,  and  snapper,  whicli  he  flourished 
80  briskly  on  the  coach-box,  and  the  same  big  hat  and  long  cape  in  which 
he  took  his  frequent  perch. 

Yet,  youthful  as  is  this  robust  Iron  Way,  and  fresh  as  is  the  strength  of 
its  invincible  Carriage,  its  career  has  already  attained  an  //. wioric  impoitance. 
The  Statistics  of  railways  have  been  for  some  years  sufficiently  co]nous  for 
volumes  of  such  magnitude  as  McCulloch  would  not  disdain  to  compile; 
but  their  story  has  now  likewise  obtained  an  expansion  that  may  rival,  not 
the  records  merely  of  the  most  venerable  inventions  and  arts,  but  the  annals 
even  of  empires.  Nay,  so  abundant  is  the  material  that  a segment  only  of 
the  field  has  found  a journalist,  who  has  filled  two  very  respectable  octavos 
of  above  300  pages  each,  from  the  “History  of  the  Ilritish  Railway”  alone. 
It  is,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  a faithful,  and  therefore,  of  course,  an  instructive 
work,  and  although  the  further  development  of  the  railway  system  will  oc- 
casion, within  a few  years,  the  necessity  of  an  enlarged  history,  it  is  still,  in 
the  meantime,  deserving  attentive  perusal.  From  the  facts  in  these  volumes, 
we  proceed  to  give  an  epitome  of  the  very  interesting  history  of  the  inter- 
nal communication  of  England. 

In  his  first  chapters,  Mr.  Francis  gives  a history  of  early  English  Loco- 
motion. The  first  Roads  in  England,  by  which,  of  course,  he  means  the 
first  broad  regular,  permanent  avenues,  in  distinction  from  the  ungraded 
natural  or  chance  pathways  before  used  by  the  Britons,  were  laid  out  by 
the  Romans  at  the  time  of  their  conquest  of  the  Island.  These  roads 
were  cut  out  to  facilitate  the  march  of  their  troops,  and  to  connect  their  va- 
rious camps.  In  the  following  period  of  the  dark  ages,  roads,  if  such  could 
be  said  to  exist,  were  extremely  rude  and  dangerous.  “The  age  of  chivalry 
was  a terrible  era  for  the  wayfarer.”  Long  journeys  w^ere,  at  that  time, 
performed  on  horseback,  a sort  of  carriage  being  only  occasionally  used. 
Beside  the  natural  dangers  of  the  way,  which  as  described,  were  of  the  most 
formidable  character,  the  roads  were  infested  by  outlaws  whose  castles  were 
in  the  depths  of  the  forests,  and  whose  dungeons  were  the  receptacle  of  the 
plunder  obtained  on  the  highway,  and  often  the  grave  of  the  plundered. 
Journe3ing  was  then  a terror  which  few  wished  to  encounter;  the  fear-in- 
spired piety  of  the  road  exceeded  that  of  the  sanctuary  ; “more  fervent  pray- 
ers were  heard  for  safety,  on  huge,  desolate  Salisbury  plain  than  vyere  ever 
breathed  in  its  fine  cathedral.”  In  spite  of  all  the  eflbrts  of  kings,  nobles, 


History  of  the  English  Railways. 


633 


and  abbots,  these  freebooters  maintained  their  disagreeable  surveillance  of  the 
highways,  and  while  some  of  the  nobility  and  priesthood  were  obliged  to 
become  themselves  tributary  to  them,  others  of  those  classes  found  an  interest 
in  conciliating  their  power  by  a league.  These  desperate  men  have  become 
immortalized  in  romance. 

In  the  twelfth  contury,  the  proceeds  of  a stall  in  Salisbury  Cathedral  were 
less  than  the  cost  of  a visit  from  Salisbury  to  London.  In  the  fourteenth 
century,  the  fare  by  horse  from  Canterbury  to  Dover  was  sixpence ; from 
Southward  to  Rochester,  twelve  pence.  During  Watt  Tyler’s  insurrection, 
the  mother  of  Richard  II.  went  from  Canterbury  to  Dover  in  one  day,  but 
her  speed  was  stimulated  by  fear,  as  she  “ never  durst  tarry  on  the  way.” 
Twenty  miles  a day  was  considered  good  traveling  at  this  time ; and  the 
herald  of  the  king  of  Scotland  was  allowed  forty  days  to  proceed  from  Lon- 
don to  the  border. 

So  late  as  the  16th  century  the  roads  were  so  tortuous  and  difficult,  the 
machines  for  carriage  of  goods  so  rough,  the  transportation  so  costly,  and 
the  exactions  of  the  nobles  and  abbots  on  those  parts  of  the  roads  passing 
their  estates,  so  onerous,  that  while  scarcity  of  food  prevailed  in  one  district 
of  England,  the  abundant  fruits  of  the  earth  rotted  in  another  not  very  dis- 
tant. It  was  easier  and  less  expensive  to  convey  merchandise  from  London 
to  Lisbon,  than  from  Norwich  to  LondcD*  At  this  time  many  of  the  streets 
oven  of  London  were  almost  impassable. 

The  first  English  coach  was  built  in  1565,  by  the  Earl  of  Rutland.  Du- 
ring the  sixteenth  century,  roads  were  first  made  the  subjects  of  legislative 
enactment,  and  the  initiative  was  taken  in  those  laws,  under  which  the  roads 
of  the  country  have  been  brought  into  a system,  and  the  locomotive  acom- 
modation  of  the  public  made  a prominent  care  of  the  government. 

To  show  how  difficult  is  always  the  introduction  of  reform,  the  people  of 
England  opposed  with  bitter  antipathy,  the  first  efforts  of  the  legislature.  It 
was  long  before  they  could  be  brought  to  submit  to  the  payment  of  tolls  on 
the  roads,  and  to  be  taxed  otherwise  for  their  improvement.  The  acts  of 
the  government  were  deemed  an  insufferable  tyranny,  and  if  there  were  any 
road-reformers  among  the  people,  they  were  undoubtedly  decried  as  pesti- 
lent radicals,  who  designed  the  destruction  of  society.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  this  state  of  the  roads  of  England,  and  this  state  of  public  feel- 
ing in  regard  to  their  improvement,  existed  so  late  as  the  brilliant  epoch  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  when  the  power  of  England  was  felt  over  the  whole  world, 
when  her  superiority  in  civilization,  arts,  and  Commerce,  was  acknowledged, 
and  when  such  men  lived  as  Shakspeare,  Sidney,  and  Bacon.  No  doubt 
England  compared  then  as  favorably  in  regard  to  her  public  ways,  with 
the  continent,  as  she  did  in  the  other  agencies  and  evidences  of  civiliza- 
tion. 

Roads,  then,  are  in  the  simplest  form  prevailing  at  present  in  civilized 
countries,  of  quite  recent  origin.  It  is  comparatively  a short  time  since  they 
began  to  exist  at  all ; and  of  course,  that  Internal  Commerce  which  is  so 
important  a feature  in  the  social  organization  of  the  present  day,  and  which 
is  the  prolific  source  of  an  immense  portion  of  the  wealth,  the  comfort,  and 
the  intelligence  of  nations,  is  almost  entirely  a thing  of  modern  times.  In 
no  way  do  we  obtain  so  clear,  so  full  a perception  of  the  real  condition  of 
states  and  people  in  the  remoter  periods  referred  to,  as  by  the  accounts  we 
are  given  of  their  roads. 

Until  within  a very  short  time,  the  metropolis  of  England  was  a great  myth 


534 


History  of  the  English  Railways. 

to  tho  villagers.  1’liey  knew  less  of  it  tlian  an  Knglisli  farmer  knows  now 
of  Paris  or  Constantinople — it  was  more  a foreign,  an  outside  jdare  to  lliom 
than  Canton  is  at  ])resent.  News  of  important  events  were  several  montlis 
in  traveling  to  important  towns,  now  witliin  a day  of  the  capital. 

In  the  seventeentli  century,  although  considerable  improvement  liad  been 
made,  it  took  a viceroy,  with  all  the  apjiliances  and  appurtenances  of  w^ealtli, 
five  liours  to  travel  fourteen  miles.  Heavy  goods  w'cro  transported  from 
London  to  Pirmingham  at  a cost  of  £1  a ton,  and  from  London  to  Exeter, 
the  cost  was  £12. 

In  16G2  there  were  six  stage-coaches  in  all  England.  In  1GG9,  the  flying- 
coach  undertook  the  journey  from  Oxford  to  London  between  sunrise  and 
sunset.  “ This  spirited  undertaking,”  says  Mr.  Macaulay,  “ was  solemnly  con- 
sidered and  sanctioned  by  the  heads  of  the  university,  and  appears  to  liavo 
excited  the  same  sort  of  interest  which  is  excited  in  our  own  time,  by  the 
opening  of  a new  railway.  Tho  success  of  the  experiment  was  complete. 
At  six  in  the  morning  the  carriage  began  to  move  from  before  the  ancient 
front  of  All-Souls’  College,  and  at  seven  in  the  evening,  the  adventurous  gen- 
tlemen w'ho  had  run  the  first  risk,  were  safely  deposited  at  the  inn  in  Lon- 
don.” But  this  coacli  could  not  combat  the  dangers  of  winter. 

In  IVOG,  the  stage-coach  was  first  advertised  between  York  and  London 
in  four  days  each  way;  and  in  1712,  the  effort  was  made,  and  succeeded 
to  run  a stage  all  the  way  from  London  to  Edinburg  in  thirteen  days.  The 
advocates  of  such  rapid  traveling  were,  it  seems  by  the  story,  regarded  by 
a great  many  wise  men  as  hair-brained  people,  who  wished  to  turn  the  world 
topsy-turvy  and  break  the  necks  of  all  respectable,  conservative,  easy-going 
gentlemen. 

The  popular  outbreaks  of  1 715,  1745,  etc.,  were  the  occasion  of  new 
highways  and  of  the  betterment  of  old  ones,  measures  rendered  necessary 
for  the  transportation  of  troops,  which  is  one  among  the  many  evidences 
that  can  be  ofiered  to  show  that  insurrections  are  productive  of  some  good 
effects ; the  very  activity  of  self-defence  into  which  a slothful  government  is 
kicked  by  them,  accomplishing  often  great  incidental,  though  of  course  un- 
designed, public  benefits. 

Up  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Peddlers  formed  not  only  one  of 
the  most  important  features  of  English  locomotion,  but  they  were  also  the 
principal,  and  to  a great  extent  the  sole,  couriers  of  news  from  town  to  coun- 
try. All  that  the  mass  of  the  rural  population  could  know  of  the  events 
of  the  great  city,  was  what  they  heard  from  the  peddler,  all  they  could  ever 
see  of  it,  was  the  wares  brought  from  thence  in  his  pack.  The  peddler  wrote 
letters  for  the  peasants,  carried  correspondence  from  one  part  of  the  country 
to  another,  and  was  frequently  the  medium  by  which  the  seditious  commu- 
nicated with  each  other  and  effected  the  arrangement  of  their  plots.  As 
the  sphere  of  the  peddler  v/as  doubtless  the  same  in  America  at  that  time, 
it  would  seem  that  a better  reason  than  mere  fancy  induced  Cooper  to  assign 
that  particular  employment  to  his  famous  semi-historical  character,  the  Spy. 

In  17G3,  Turnpike-Gates  were  first  established  in  all  parts  of  England, 
and  for  years  the  chief  means  for  the  repair  of  the  roads  was  derived  from 
them.  The  state  of  the  roads  was  still  bad  enough,  but  the  worst  defect 
and  the  hardest  to  remedy,  was  their  general  tortuous  course.  The  landed 
pro])rietors  were  the  cause  of  this.  The  first  care  of  them  all  was  to  preserv^e 
their  estates  from  invasion,  and  as  their  local  influence  was  unlimited,  each 
proprietor  had  the  pleasure  of  twisting  tho  roads  in  his  own  neighborhood, 


The  History  of  the  English  Railways. 


535 


to  whatevar  courses  he  chose;  subjecting  the  traveler  thus  to  perpetual  sin- 
uosities of  way,  obliging  him  to  go  over  many  and  many  a needless  mile, 
to  climb  steep  hills  when  he  might  have  traversed  a level,  and  to  wade 
through  a miry  soil  when  a firm  foundation  was  more  easily  to  be  had. 

So  late  as  1770,  the  roads  in  the  interior  of  England  were  in  an  execrable 
condition.  From  that  time,  however,  the  stage-coach  system  rapidly  im- 
proved and  extended,  business  between  town  and  country  augmented,  and 
consequently  the  roads  were  placed  under  better  auspices.  The  power  of 
money  was  brought  to  bear  upon  their  defects,  invention  and  scientific  skill 
were  set  to  work,  and  so  great  was  the  transformation  that  by  the  year  1825, 
the  roads  of  England,  Mr.  Francis  assures  us,  “ had  reached  an  almost  per- 
fect condition.” 

But  before  this  time,  other  agencies  of  communication  had  been  devised, 
and  were  in' imperfect  operation.  The  first  Canal  in  England  was  built  in 
1758,  between  Worsley  and  Manchester,  by  Francis,  Duke  of  Bridgewater, 
who  is  often  called  the  father  of  inland  navigation.  It  was  no  ordinary  work. 
The  level  of  the  water  was  preserved  without  the  usual  obstruction  of  locks, 
to  effect  which  the  canal  was  carried  over  rivers  and  valleys,  surmounted  ele- 
vated aqueducts  and  passed  through  subterraneous  tunnels.  Public  opinion 
was  against  the  scheme,  and  the  duke  was  regarded  a madman.  But  he 
triumphed — the  vast  work  was  completed — and  the  convinced  populace  and 
confounded  aristocracy  could  now  only  wonder  and  admire.  Before  the  ca- 
nal was  opened,  the  cost  of  carriage  on  the  river  from  Liverpool  to  Man- 
chester was  12s.  a ton,  the  duke’s  charge  on  the  canal  was  limited  by  stat- 
ute to  6s.  a ton.  Other  canals  followed,  a mania  arose,  and  in  1790  the 
windows  of  inns  were  forced  by  people  who  came  to  attend  canal  meetings, 
and  farmers  went  at  midnight  to  procure  shares  which  would  ruin  them.  In 
1851,  there  were  about  2,400  miles  of  canal  in  England. 

The  earliest  approximation  to  the  modern  Railway  was  the  modern  tram- 
road.  It  was  between  1602  and  1649  that  logs  of  wood  were  laid  along 
the  roads  leading  from  the  coal  mines,  and  on  these  simple  rails  it  was  found 
that  a horse  could  draw  42  cwt.,  where  he  could  draw  but  17  cwt.  before. 
By  1750,  there  was  scarcely  an  important  mine  without  its  accompanying 
tram-road.  These  roads  ran  directly  to  a river,  if  one  was  near,  and  in 
some  cases  £500  a year  was  paid  for  the  “ way-leave,”  that  is,  the  right  of 
transportation  over  intervening  grounds.  The  effect  w«as  a rapid  increase  in 
the  quantity  of  coal  mined  and  transported. 

In  1738  cast-iron  rails  were  first  substituted  for  wooden  ones,  but  did  not 
completely  succeed,  at  first,  owing  to  the  too  great  weight  of  the  old  wagons, 
which  had  been  used  on  the  wooden  rails.  In  1768  the  difficulty  was  reme- 
died by  the  simple  contrivance  of  a number  of  light  wagons  linked  together, 
in  lieu  of  the  large  heavy  ones.  By  this  means  the  weight  was  more  dif- 
fused on  the  line  of  the  road,  instead  of  resting  upon  one  spot.  The  iron 
rail  was,  however,  very  slow  in  coming  into  use,  and  in  1767  the  prevailing 
rail  was  the  wooden. 

The  first  locomotive  steam-engine  in  England  was  made  by  Mr.  Trevi- 
thick, and  it  was  first  used  in  1804,  on  the  railroad  of  Merther  Tydvil,  in 
South  Wales.  It  drew  carriages  loaded  with  ten  tons  of  iron  at  the  rate  of 
five  miles  an  hour.  Thereafter  steam  locomotion  was  much  in  men’s 
thoughts,  but  its  immediate  fruition  was  prevented,  and  the  world  for  years 
deprived  of  the  incalculable  benefit  of  a new  principle  and  a new  power 
from  the  fallacy  which  took  possession  of  men’s  heads,  that  smooth  wheels 


536 


The  History  of  the  English  Railways. 


could  not  be  made  to  carry  heavy  loads  over  srnootli  rails.  Years  and  years 
were  sj)ent  in  speculations  on  the  means  of  overcoming  this  difliculty — 
treatises  numberless  were  written,  plans  suggested,  and  patents  taken  out ; 
projections  were  attached  to  the  wheels  by  one,  another  attemj)ted  to  push 
ahead  the  iron-horse  by  a pair  of  hind  legs,  like  those  of  its  animal  prede- 
cessor, while  a third  nearly  jiroduced  both  fore  and  hind  legs;  and  linally, 
in  1811,  Mr.  Illenkinsop  of  Middleton  colliery,  conveyed  coals  by  the  aid  of 
engines  with  toothcd-wheels  worked  into  a tooth-rack.  The  rejoicings  at 
this  success  were  great,  but  about  two  years  after  it  was  discoverfd  that  all 
this  remedial  effort  was  wasted,  as  the  difficulty  itself  was  nothing  more 
than  imaginary.  Mr.  lllackett,  of  Wylom  Jtailway,  discovered  the  fact  in 
using  one  of  Trevitliick’s  engines;  and  on  the  25th  duly,  1814,  the  princi- 
ple was  triumphantly  proved  by  an  engine  constructed  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  George  Stephenson,  moving  up  a slight  ascent  and  drawing 
after  it  eight  loaded  carriages,  weighing  twenty  tons. 

The  first  public  line  built  in  England  for  the  use  of  the  steam-carriago 
was  the  Stockton  and  Darlington — this  was  “ the  great  starting-point  of  tho 
modern  rail.”  Tho  act  of  incorporation  was  obtained  in  1821,  and  the 
road  was  opened  in  1825;  its  length  was  forty  miles,  and  tho  cost  and 
capital  about  £250,000.  Its  projectors  designed  the  road  only  for  the  con- 
veyance of  coal  and  other  mineral  products,  and  anticipated  the  carriage  of 
only  about  10,000  tons  per  annum.  Of  passengers  they  had  no  thought, 
at  brst,  and  when  they  began  to  carry  them,  supposed  that  the  locomotive 
was  incapable  of  the  regularity  required  for  such  traffic,  and  attached  horses 
instead  to  the  passenger  cars.  As  the  fruits  of  the  railway  alone,  the 
travel  in  this  mode  rose  to  five  or  six  hundred  weekly,  where  there  had 
been  a coach  traffic  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  persons  weekly.  The  price  of  coal 
in  the  neighborhood  fell  from  185.  to  8s.  Gc/. — a new  trade  in  lime  arose — 
and,  in  short,  the  customary  advantages  of  a railroad  were  derived. 

The  whole  number  of  railways  existing  at  this  time  in  England,  which 
had  been  constructed  between  1801  and  1825,  and  were,  of  course,  with 
the  exception  of  one  or  tw’o  of  the  last,  designed  for  horse-power,  and  all  of 
them  for  the  carriage  simply  of  coals,  &c.,  was  twenty-nine,  the  entire  length 
of  the  whole,  excepting  the  Stockton  and  Darlington,  being  only  about  160 
miles,  the  longest  of  them  not  exceeding  thirty,  and  the  average  being 
about  five  miles. 

The  improvements  in  machinery  and  the  progress  of  steam  in  manufac- 
tures had,  in  1825,  made  a vast  increase  in  the  importance  of  the  manufac- 
turing city  of  Manchester,  and  rendered  a greatly  enlarged  facility  of  con- 
veyance between  that  place  and  Liverpool  an  absolute  necessity.  The  cot- 
ton sent  from  Liverpool  to  Manchester  had  increased  fifty  millions  of  pounds 
in  nine  years.  From  1821  to  1824  the  exports  of  Liverpool  had  increased 
by  £Y, 500, 000,  and  the  tonnage  had  increased  from  seventy-one  thousand 
to  more  than  a million  of  tons.  Still  the  carriage  power  between  the  two 
places  was  so  limited  that  accommodation  was  meted  out  in  rotary  order — 
those  who  had  furnished  freight  yesterday  not  being  allowed  any  room  to- 
day. The  canal  directors  held  levees,  which  were  attended  by  crowds,  who, 
admitted  one  by  one,  almost  implored  them  to  forward  their  goods.  Beside 
the  difliculty  of  getting  conveyance  at  all,  the  communication  was  extremely 
idow,  one  company  occupying  an  average  of  thirty-six  hours,  and  another, 
of  four  days  in  the  passage,  while,  sometimes,  the  time  was  longer  than  that 
occupied  in  the  voyage  from  New  York  to  Liverpool.  Certain  commodities 


The  History  of  the  English  Railways. 


537 


could  obtain  no  transit.  One  company  carried  no  timber,  another  no  wheat, 
and  all  of  them  objected  to  a peculiar  kind  of  cotton  as  too  bulky.  The 
average  charge  of  the  canals  was  155.  a ton.  The  first  survey  for  a railroad 
between  the  cities  was  made  in  1822.  The  scheme  was  hotly  opposed,  the 
canal  and  landed  interests  being  in  the  lead  of  the  opposition.  The  friends 
of  the  road  proposed  to  compromise  with  the  canal  proprietors,  but  the  lat- 
ter, in  the  arrogance  of  their  power,  and  regarding  the  railway  still  as  a 
fable,  refused  to  reduce  their  prices  or  better  the  conveniences  aftbrded  the 
public.  A bill  for  a railroad  was  brought  into  Parliament,  and  after  thirty- 
seven  days  heated  discussion  in  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  it 
failed.  But  the  projectors  of  the  road  were  not  discouraged.  Another 
effort  was  made,  and  under  the  vigorous  leadership  of  Mr.  Huskisson  the 
bill  passed.  While  the  scheme  was  in  agitation  it  was  attacked  by  every 
species  of  argument  that  ingenuity  could  invent.  The  great  point  was  the 
injury  to  be  done  to  the  estated  gentlemen,  as  if  the  interests  of  the  few 
great  landholders  of  England  were  worthy  of  more  attention  than  that  of  all 
the  rest  of  the  population.  The  disfigurement  of  their  lands  was  to  be  hor- 
rible— their  fine  parks  were  to  be  destroyed— foxes  and  pheasants  were  to 
cease — the  smoke  of  the  engines  would  kill  all  the  birds — the  estates  were 
to  depreciate  in  value,  in  fact,  would  be  ruined,  and  their  noble  proprietors 
would  be  forced,  as  was  said  with  great  pathos  in  Parliament,  to  leave  for- 
ever the  places  where  they  had  lived  so  long  and  happily — to  leave  them, 
and  go  away.  Then  the  farmers  w'ere  told  of  the  miseries  of  the  railway 
and  locomotive  were  to  inflict  upon  them  : the  race  of  horses  would  be  ex- 
tinguished, and  there  w’ould  be  no  market  for  their  hay  and  oats  ; their 
cattle  would  be  seized  with  dismay  in  the  fields  at  sight  of  the  engine,  and 
forget  all  their  long  habits  of  submission  and  order ; even  the  cows  would 
cease  to  give  milk  wherever  the  terrific  engine  appeared ; vegetation  itself 
would  cease  along  the  path  of  the  locomotive ; the  market-gardener  would 
be  utterly  ruined.  Then  the  life  and  limb  of  everybody  was  to  be  endan- 
gered ; old  men  and  children  w^ould  be  mercilessly  knocked  down  and  mas- 
sacred ; horses  (that  is,  while  horses  existed)  would  be  frightened,  and  run 
away,  knocking  out  the  brains  of  gentlemen,  and  dashing  ladies  to  pieces. 
The  sparks  from  the  engine  were  to  set  the  goods  on  the  train  on  fire,  and 
carry  conflagrations  into  every  wooden  town  they  entered.  It  was  argued, 
that  in  point  of  carriage,  even,  the  railroad  was  no  better  than  the  canal — 
it  was  not  so  good ; the  canal  would  beat  it  in  regard  to  the  vaunted  speed, 
and  would  furnish  cheaper  conveyance  also.  The  dignified  Quarterly  Re- 
view backed  up  old  father  Thames  against  the  railway  for  any  sum.  Indeed, 
a strong  wind,  alone,  would  be  enough  to  completely  stop  the  locomotive ; 
so  would  rain;  snow  would  upset  it;  storm  and  frost  would  effectually  kill 
the  force  of  steam.  Then  the  engine,  going  so  fast,  would  make  all  the 
passengers  sea-sick : they  would  be  scalded  to  death  by  the  boiler  blowing 
up,  or  shot  by  its  fragments.  And  wdiat,  too,  was  to  become  of  all  the 
coach-makers  and  harness-makers,  coach-masters,  coachmen,  innkeepers, 
horse-breeders,  horse-dealers,  and  horse-drivers,  when  their  vocation  should 
be  destroyed  by  the  ruthless  steam-engine  ? What  was  the  world  to  do 
without  iron,  when  the  railways  had  increased  the  cost  of  that  necessary  one 
hundred  per  cent,  or,  as  they  more  probably  would,  had  exhausted  the  sup- 
ply altogether  ? The  people,  it  was  said,  would  rise  in  arms  against  the 
threatened  ruin,  and  so  there  would  be  insurrection  or  civil  war.  Railroads, 
in  short,  were  the  greatest  evil  man’s  ingenuity  could  inflict  upon  England, 


538 


History  of  the  English  Railways. 

and  as  sucli  Sir  Isaac  Coffin  denounced  tliem  in  parliament,  and  Mr.  Stan- 
ley declaimed  against  them.  ^^r.  Iluskisson’s  arguments  were  declared 
hollow  absurdities,  and  Mr.  George  Steplienson  was  quite  destitute  of  com- 
mon sense. 

The  lower  classes  were  even  more  opposed  to  raihvays  than  the  land- 
holders. The  unpopularity  of  the  locomotive  with  the  clfisses  it  was  chiefly 
to  benefit  can  scarcely  be  described.  As  Mr.  Francis  says,  the  horrors  of 
the  infernal  regions  were  figured  by  it , death  and  dismay  were  familiarly 
connected  with  it.  In  such  a state  of  the  public  mind,  and  with  such  ])ow- 
ers  against  them,  it  may  be  conceived  what  obstacles  the  early  friends  of 
railways  in  England  had  to  contend  with.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  this 
was  so  late  as  the  year  1825.  When  w’e  reflect  that  it  is  less  than  thirty 
years  since  these  things  were,  the  triumT)h  of  railways  appears,  indeed, 
most  wonderful. 

The  bill  for  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  road  was  finally  carried  by 
conciliating  the  principal  canal  proprietor,  and  by  so  altering  the  proposed 
route  as  to  avoid  the  estates  of  some  principal  land-owners.  The  prospectus, 
from  the  first,  contemplated  \X\q  j^o-^senger  traffic,  this  being  the  first  instance 
in  which  it  had  been  at  all  referred  to,  in  the  establishment  of  any  railroad, 
as  an  element  of  its  support.  Geo.  Stephenson  was  appointed  engineer, 
and  finished  the  road  in  1829.  Three  locomotives  were  produced,  in  re- 
sponse to  the  offer  of  £500  premium  for  the  best — the  “ Novelty,”  by  Mr. 
Braithwaite,  the  “ Sans-Bareil,”  by  Mr.  Ilackworth,  and  the  “ Rocket,”  by 
Mr.  Stephenson.  The  trial  was  made  on  the  Gth  of  October,  1829,  in  the 
presence  of  an  immense  concourse  of  people — farmers,  mechanics,  laborers, 
scientific  men,  nobles  and  legislators — friends  and  enemies.  The  Sans- 
Pareil  failed;  the  boiler  of  the  Novelty  burst ; the  Rocket  was  awarded 
the  triumph.  The  greatest  speed  attained  by  the  Rocket  was  rather  above 
twenty-nine  miles  an  hour.  The  effect  was  electrical,  Everybody  was 
forced  to  believe  in,  at  least,  the  potency  of  the  steam  locomotive ; the  price 
of  shares  in  the  road  rose  £10  per  cent,  and  the  capital  stock  was  increased 
in  value  £65,000.  The  driver  of  the  successful  engine  was  Charles  Fox,  the 
future  builder  of  the  Crystal  Palace. 

The  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway,  as  constructed,  was  thirty  miles 
in  length,  and  independently  of  culverts  and  footways  had  sixty-three 
bridges,  thirty  of  which  passed  under  the  turnpike  road,  twenty-eight  over 
it,  four  over  streams,  and  one  over  the  river  Irwell.  The  excavations  made 
in  its  formation  yielded  upwards  of  three  million  cubic  yards  of  stone,  clay, 
and  soil.  The  road  was  officially  opened  on  the  30th  September,  1830,  and 
with  the  first  train  occurred  the  tragedy  of  which  the  lamented  Huskisson 
was  the  victim.  On  the  4th  December,  the  first  locomotive  engine  bearing 
freight  passed  along  the  line  from  Liverpool  to  Manchester ; the  train  con- 
sisted of  eighteen  wagons,  containing  135  bags  and  bales  of  American  cot- 
ton, 200  barrels  of  flour,  63  sacks  of  oatmeal,  and  34  sacks  of  malt,  weigh- 
ing, altogether,  51  tons,  11  hundred  weight,  1 quarter.  The  wagons  and 
oil  cloths  weighed  8 hundred  weight,  3 quarters,  and  the  tender,  water,  and 
fuel,  4 tons ; the  whole  weight  drawn,  counting  that  of  fifteen  persons  upon 
the  train,  being  eighty  tons,  exclusive  of  the  engine.  The  passage  was  ac- 
complished in  two  hours  and  fifty-four  minutes.  Within  fourteen  days,  the 
passengers  amounted  to  800  a day,  and  immediately  after  to  1200 — the 
time  of  the  journey  was  reduced  to  one  hour  and  a half ; within  four  mouths 
the  merchandise  traffic  had  quadrupled,  rising  from  1,432  to  5,104  tons. 


History  of  the  English  Railways. 


539 


The  passenger  fare  at  the  opening  was  7s.,  but  was  soon  reduced  to  45. 
The  revenue  derived  from  passengers  was  double  that  from  merchandise. 
Only  one  passenger  was  killed  in  the  first  700,000,  and  that  one  by  his  own 
carlessness.  The  £100  shares  in  the  road  soon  rose  to  £200.  In  short, 
the  career  of  the  road  thenceforth  was  a continued  triumph.  In  1832  the 
number  of  passengers  carried  amounted  to  356,000,  and  in  1835  it  had 
risen  to  473,000. 

While  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  was  in  progress,  various  other  lines 
were  projected,  and  unsuccessful  efforts  made  to  effect  their  construction. 
In  1824-5  a mania  existed  among  the  advocates  of  railroads;  fifty-nine 
roads  were  projected  in  1825  alone,  and  the  capital  demanded  for  the 
schemes  of  the  two  years  was  £21,942,500,  of  which  £219,425  was  ac- 
tually paid  in.  But  the  opponents  of  railways  were  still  in  the  ascendant. 
The  old  arguments  were  re-presented  and  amplified,  and  parliament  threw 
out  all  the  bills  presented.  To  a number  of  these  schemes  many  of  the 
merchants  and  bankers  of  London  gave  a cautious  support ; but,  on  closely 
calculating  the  chances  of  profit  by  them,  not  foreseeing  the  fact  that  rail- 
roads create  trade,  they  afterward,  in  good  part,  withdrew,  their  connection 
and  money.  The  fierce  commercial  crisis  that  followed,  “ when  terror  and 
confusion  reigned  paramount,  and  England  was  within  twenty-four  hours  of 
barter,”  put  a quietus  upon  these  projects,  and  from  1825  to  1830  the  rail- 
way shared  the  depression  of  the  entire  commercial  interest,  in  the  langor 
succeeding  the  great  revulsion. 

In  1829,  an  act  for  the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle  Railway,  sixty-one  miles 
in  length,  was  passed,  but  the  road  was  not  finished  until  ten  years  there- 
after. In  1832  the  London  and  Birmingham  was  brought  before  Parlia- 
ment. In  favor  of  the  connection  of  Birmingham  with  the  metropolis,  it 
was  argued  that  it  had  a population  of  110,000,  and  a great  trade.  In  one 
half  century  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  steam-engines  had  been  erected 
there,  yet  carriage  had  but  slightly  improved.  The  shortest  journey  by 
canal  occupied  three  days — the  railroad  would  shorten  it  to  six  hours ; and 
if  a much  increased  speed  were  not  attained,  the  Birmingham  manufacturer 
must  lose  the  continental  business  entirely.  But  opposition  to  railroads 
was  far  from  silent : the  enemies  of  this  road  appeared  almost  as  an  organ- 
ized party ; they  declared  it  would  be  “ a drag  on  the  country,”  and  that 
its  “ bridges  and  culverts  would  be  antiquarian  ruins.”  Again  it  was  re- 
peated that  game  would  cease  to  be,  that  meadows  would  be  made  sterile, 
fields  disfigured,  and  agriculture  ruined.  Canals  and  their  dependents,  inn- 
keepers, horses,  &c.,  &c.,  were  to  be  irreparably  injured — swallowed  up  by 
the  steam-monster.  Hundreds  of  thousands  were  to  be  victimized  for  the 
benefit  of  a few.  The  rich  were  to  be  made  beggars — the  poor  to  be  more 
impoverished.  The  Countess  of  Bridgewater  and  Lord  Brownlow  declared 
whatever  advantage  the  public  might  reap  would  not  equal  the  injury  to 
their  estates ; and  Lord  Southampton  pronounced  the  thing  positively  a 
nuisance.  The  tunnels  proposed  on  this  and  other  railways  excited  especial 
horror.  We  find  it  the  general  belief,  in  1834,  that  it  was  not  safe  to 
travel  through  these  dark  ways.  The  horrors  of  the  passage  was  descanted 
on  by  public  writers  and  orators  in  the  most  glowing  style.  They  talked 
of  “ the  sudden  immersion  in  gloom,”  “ the  clash  of  reverberated  sounds  in 
a confined  space,”  “ the  rattling  wheels,”  “ the  pouting,  puffing  engine,” 
“ the  clanking  chains,”  “ the  dismal  glare  of  lamps,”  “ the  darkness  made 
visible,”  the  heart-sinking  “ idea  of  destruction,”  the  “ thrill  of  annihilation.” 


640 


Ilislorij  of  the  English  Railways, 


There  were,  too,  the  less  poetic  evils  of  colds,  catarrlis,  and  consumptions, 
to  come  from  the  chill  of  a two  miles’  subterranean  journey.  Tliere  was 
the  danger  also  of  sullbcation  within  these  dreadfid  viaducts. 

So  violent  was  the  opposition,  that  the  survey  had,  in  part,  to  be  conduct- 
ed at  night,  with  dark  lanterns.  The  first  bill  for  the  road  was  rejected  in 
parliament.  Hut  money  effected  what  other  argument  failed  to  accom- 
plish. Some  of  the  peers  who  had  so  loudly  comjdained  of  the  intended 
desecration  of  the  historic  memories  of  their  mansions,  were  glad  of  a 
chance  to  replenish  their  depleted  treasuries — and  farmers,  small  land- 
owners,  and  country  gentlemen,  were  soothed  by  the  same  delicate  appli- 
ance. The  bribe  was  given  in  the  shape  of  an  enormous  price  for  lands, 
etc.,  in  order  that  its  grossness  might  be  a little  concealeri,  and  the  law 
evaded.  The  amount  nominally  paid  for  lands  overvalued  at  £250,000, 
was  three  times  that  amount — and  the  directors  then  report,  that  “ nearly 
all  those  who  were  the  most  active  and  the  most  formidable  have  been  con- 
ciliated.” By  these  means  the  bill  passed  in  1833. 

The  London  and  Birmingham  was  completed,  and  opened  in  its  whole 
length,  112  miles,  on  the  17th  Sept.,  1838.  Its  cost  was  £504,000.  The 
passenger  traffic  for  the  first  year  was  estimated  at  about  £330,000,  and 
reached  above  £500,000.  The  goods  traffic,  estimated  at  £340,000,  reach- 
ed only  about  £90,000.  The  expenses  of  the  year  were  five  and  a half 
millions,  and  the  net  profit  ten  per  cent. 

The  charter  of  the  Great  Western  Railway  was  passed  in  1835,  this  road 
being  as  violently  opposed  as  the  others,  and  by  the  same  kind  of  argument. 
Eton  College  objected  to  it  that  it  would  be  injurious  to  the  discipline  of 
the  school,  and  dangerous  to  the  morals  of  the  pupils  ; “ anybody  who 
knew  the  nature  of  Eton  boys  knew  they  could  not  be  kept  from  the  rail- 
way.” One  bill  \vas  defeated,  and  the  event  was  celebrated  by  a fete  at 
Salthill,  the  Marquis  of  Chandos  presiding,  and  the  Fellows  of  Eton  College 
gracing  the  occasion  with  their  august  presence.  But  the  agencies  so  effec- 
tive in  the  case  of  the  London  and  Birmingham,  prevailed  here  also,  and  a 
second  bill  was  passed.  The  capital  was  at  first  £250,000,  to  be  raised  on 
stock,  w th  a loan  of  £833,333.  In  1839  the  capital  was  enlarged  by 
£1,250,000  by  stock,  and  £416,000  by  loan.  In  accordance  with  the  ad- 
vice of  M.  Brunei,  the  engineer  of  this  road,  the  gauge  of  seven  feet,  now 
called  the  “ broad  gauge,”  was  adopted  in  place  of  the  common  “narrow 
gauge  of  four  feet  eight  and  a half  inches.  The  connection  of  roads  with 
each  other,  so  as  to  form  continuous  lines,  was  not  then  foreseen ; it  was 
supposed  that  their  conveniences  would  be  mainly  local.  We  believe  that 
the  example  of  the  Great  Western  has  been  followed  by  no  other  road, 
however,  in  Great  Britain,  and  it  remains  alone,  therefore,  in  this  singularity. 
Brunei  believed  the  broad  gauge  would  enable  an  immense  increase  of  speed 
over  that  obtained  on  the  narrow  gauge,  and  he  prophecied  one  hundred 
miles  an  hour  upon  the  Great  Western.  The  road  was  made  with  a double 
track,  the  first  one  having  that  feature.  The  expense  of  the  construction 
was  the  enormous  sum  of  £56,594  G^.  per  mile.  The  land  cost  £790,218 
145.  10c/.,  or  at  the  rate  of  £6,696  155.  4(/.;  and  the  law  expenses  were 
£99,091  Od.  The  receipts  of  the  first  four  weeks  after  the  road  was  opened 
were  £14,000.  Of  late  this  railway  has  paid  badly. 

The  London  and  Southampton  Railway  was  incorporated  in  1834,  and 
finished  in  1840. 

In  1832,  while  railroads  were  yet  in  their  very  infancy,  the  English  gov- 


History  of  the  English  Railways. 


641 


eminent  committed  the  error  of  imposing  a tax  upon  their  passenger  traffic. 
The  rate  amounted  to  one  halfpenny  a mile  for  four  passengers,  or  one  half 
farthing  each  person.  The  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Company  thereupon 
advanced  the  fare  to  three  halfpence  per  mile  in  place  of  one  penny,  as  be- 
fore, and  others  followed  the  example.  This  impost  pressed  almost  entirely 
on  the  poor,  and  was  unjust  as  well  as  unwise.  From  this  duty  the  State 
collected  £6,855  in  1835,  and  in  1840  it  reached,  bv  steady  augmentation, 
£72,716. 

A remarkable  episode  in  the  railway  history  of  England,  is  the  relation 
between  the  companies  and  the  landed  aristocracy.  It  was,  at  the  first,  the 
collision  between  the  ancient  conservative,  lymphatic,  unimproving  spirit 
that  had  ruled  the  past,  and  the  new-born,  progressive,  man  elevating  energy 
that  was  to  direct  the  future.  One  was  weak  from  its  infancy,  the  other  was 
feeble  from  senility ; one  was  undeveloped — the  other  exhausted.  As  al- 
ways, the  new  triumphed  over  the  old — and  the  defeat  of  the  latter  carrried 
with  it  more  disgrace  than  ill-fortune.  The  result  exhibited  to  the  world 
that  the  British  aristocracy  was  but  a big  raree-show — a hollow  humbug — a 
matterless  bubble.  Their  power,  their  glory,  their  honor,  whatever  it  had 
been  was  defunct.  They  sold  land,  ancestral  possessions,  ancient  memo- 
ries, the  pride  of  family,  personal  character,  every  thing,  for  the  money  of 
merchants  and  mechanics,  classes  whom  their  Others,  and  they  too,  had  af- 
fected to  despise.  They  who  had  abominated  traffic  descended  to  the 
meanest  of  trade,  eagerly  chaffering  with  railroad  directors  about  the  pounds 
and  shillings  to  be  paid  for  their  properties,  and,  yet  more,  as  the  price  of 
hushing  their  hostile  voices;  every  nerve  was  strained,  and  every  means 
used,  based  on  the  known  necessities  of  the  railroad  companies,  to  extort 
their  pelf.  Never  were  misers  more  greedy  of  gold — never  more  indifferent 
to  the  means  of  obtaining  it.  To  such  a complexion  had  British  chivalry 
attained  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Another  class  should  be  alluded  to.  When  the  railway  movement  com- 
menced, the  commercial  houses  of  London  were  most  of  them  dignified  with 
ancestral  honors,  awarded  to  their  fathers  for  their  service  in  the  armed  vin- 
dication of  commercial  rights.  They  were  allied  nearly  to  the  government, 
being  often  called  on  for  counsel  as  well  as  monetary  aid.  They  were  not, 
in  our  understanding  of  the  term,  men  of  progress,  and  not  remarkable  for 
adirenture.  As  a class,  they  were  rather  cautious  in  regard  to  railroads, 
many  of  them  ranking  among  their  most  stubborn  opponents.  But  about 
1830  a change  was  apparent.  Many  of  this  class  had  been  ruined  in  the 
crisL  of  1825,  and  others  were  greatly  weakened.  A new  race  of  traders 
had  arisen,  who  had  made  up  for  their  small  capital  by  great  activity.  The 
“ new  men”  boldly  undertook  to  innovate,  and  soon  effected  a great  revolu- 
tion in  commercial  forms  and  customs.  They  eagerly  allied  themselves 
with  the  new  power,  which  the  old  houses  contemptuously  refused  to  recog- 
nize. Their  efforts,  and  the  results  attending  them,  forced  the  others  from 
their  inaction,  and  the  entire  mercantile  power  at  length  became  enlisted  on 
the  side  of  railroads — the  rapid  progress  of  which  was,  of  course,  thenceforth 
insured. 

The  London  and  Brighton  road  was  the  occasion  of  a fierce  and  factious 
contest.  Five  separate  lines  were  projected,  and  the  sums  spent  in  endeav- 
oring simply  to  obtain  an  act  by  the  different  companies  amounted  to 
£193,575.  The  expenditure  for  the  road,  on  the  successful  line,  was 
£37,568  175.  6d.  per  mile. 


642 


History  of  the  English  Hail  ways, 

Tn  183G  tlio  Kasteni  Counties,  the  only  other  road  to  bo  particularly  no* 
ticed,  was  incorporated.  The  contest  was  protracted  and  ea^^er.  During 
the  y)rogress  of  the  matter  the  company  agreed  with  Lord  Pctre  to  pay  him 
£120,000,  nominally,  for  about  six  miles  of  way  through  his  estate,  really, 
for  the  withdrawal  of  his  opposition.  Under  plea  of  a misrepresentation, 
the  directors  endeavored  afterward  to  escape  the  payment,  but  his  lordship 
forced  them  to  observe  the  contract,  adding  interest  to  the  amount,  the  land 
in  question  being  worth  only  £5,000.  Like  “amicable  arrangements” 
were  effected  with  other  opponents.  The  road  was  the  longest,  and  one  of 
the  most  expensive  built  in  England,  and  was  completed  with  great  diffi* 
culty,  the  shares  being  at  one  time  at  50  per  cent  discount. 

In  1836  an  effort  was  made  in  parliament  to  pass  a general  act,  making 
it  a condition,  that  in  all  future  bills  the  dividends  should  be  limited  to  a 
certain  rate,  and  that  parliament  should  reserve  the  power  of  periodically  re- 
vising the  tolls  on  passengers  and  freight.  This  would  have  been  a salu- 
tary law,  but  it  was  not  enacted.  The  principle  of  the  proposed  act  has, 
however,  been  asserted  by  the  government  at  other  times,  in  fixing  a limit 
to  the  profit  of  railways. 

Letween  the  years  1832  and  1836  there  were  built  in  England  about  450 
miles  of  railway,  and  350  miles  more  were  in  course  of  construction.  This 
was  a liealthy  progress,  being  no  more  than  commensurate  with  the  wants 
of  the  country. 

In  1836,  eleven  years  after  the  first  mania,  the  second  railway  fever  arose. 
The  benefits  of  railroad  had  been  completely  established,  in  the  face  of  all 
opposition.  The  fact  had  been  discovered  that  railroads  create  trade  and 
travel  where  they  did  not  before  exist,  and  there  was  now  an  unlimited,  an 
almost  superstitious  faith  in  the  productive  powers  of  the  locomotive. 
To  favor  the  public  inclination  money  was  plentiful,  and,  comparatively, 
idle,  the  current  rate  of  interest  being  3^  to  4 per  cent.  The  excitement 
sprang  up  as  sudden  as  a tornado,  about  the  month  of  July.  There  was 
scarcely  a practicable  line  between  any  two  considerable  places  in  the  king- 
dom for  which  a company  was  not  formed,  and  often  there  were  three  or 
four  rival  lines  started  together.  The  scrip  in  most  of  these  new  companies 
speedily  commanded  a premium,  and  the  shares  of  all  the  established  com- 
panies took  as  sudden  a rise.  “ The  press  supported  the  mania ; the  gov- 
ernment sanctioned  it : the  people  paid  for  it.”  Twenty  and  thirty  per 
cent  dividends  were  the  general  promise  of  the  projectors.  Of  the  five  op- 
position lines  designed  to  Brighton,  all  were  at  a premium.  In  one  parish 
of  a metropolitan  borough  sixteen  schemes  were  afloat,  and  upwards  of  one 
thousand  two  hundred  houses  scheduled  to  be  taken  down  to  make  ro6m 
for  the  rails.  Railroads  were  advertised  to  places  where  coaches  had  never 
run.  One  projector  designed  propelling  his  engine  by  sails,  and  another 
with  rockets,  promising,  confidently,  one  hundred  miles  an  hour.  Another 
invented  a wooden  line  to  travel  the  air  far  overhead.  Every  possible  trick 
was  resorted  to  to  forward  the  contending  projects.  Everybody  was  invited 
to  sign  subscription  lists,  to  make  up  the  proportion  of  the  capital  required 
to  be  paid  in  in  advance  of  the  petition  to  parliament  for  incorporation. 
Clerks  and  laborers  of  £50  salary,  signed  for  £35,000,  £50,000,  or 
£100,000.  One  railway  paid  four  shillings,  and  another  ten  shillings  per 
head  for  signatures.  Only  a small  part  of  all  these  schemes,  of  course,  suc- 
ceeded ; still,  in  the  session  of  1836  there  were  thirty-five  railway  bills 
p^isscd  ; six  of  these  were  for  alterations  only,  twenty-nine  being  for  new 


643 


History  of  the  English  Railways. 

Iin6s,  the  total  length  of  which  was  994  miles,  and  the  estimated  cost 
£1V,595,000.  Only  fifteen  of  these  roads  had  been  finished  up  to  1843, 
and  several  had  been  abandoned. 

But,  although  there  were  those  of  all  classes  engaged  in  this  furious  spec- 
ulation, their  efforts  were  not  uncombated.  There  were  still  men  whose 
interest  was  opposed  to  railways,  in  general,  as  well  as  those  who  had  ob- 
jections to  particular  lines.  The  bond-holders  in  turnpike-roads,  the  coach- 
owners,  many  landed  gentlemen  and  others,  maintained  a lusty  war  against 
the  over-sweeping  excitement.  There  were  cool-headed  senators,  who  raised 
the  cry  of  warning.  Col.  Sibthorp,  a consistent  enemy  of  steam-locomotion, 
denounced  all  railways  as  public  frauds  and  private  robberies.  The  clergy 
of  Hampshire  petitioned  against  the  locomotive,  because  the  rustics  (kept 
away  from  church  to  see  the  train  pass  by,  on  Sundays.  Political  econo- 
mists wrote  to  prove  that  railways  were  absorbing  too  much  of  the  national 
capital,  and  diverting  it  from  the  legitimate  channels.  Poets  (real  celebri- 
ties, too,)  indited  fierce  sonnets  against  the  vapor  power  and  the  iron  path ; 
and  the  mourners  after  “good  old  times”  and  departed  customs,  plaintively 
declared  that  England  must  rid  herself  altogether  of  these  destructive  inno- 
vations, and  seek  her  only  salvation  and  only  happiness  in  a return  to  stage- 
coaches, canals,  and  other  slow-going  respectabilities  of  machine,  principle, 
and  habit — the  solid  beef  which  she  has  so  unwisely  exchanged  for  this 
worse  than  moonshine  in  the  water. 

The  reaction  occurred  in  the  next  year,  and  the  revulsion  was  terrible. 
Money  became  scarce,  and  shares  of  every  description  fell.  Ruin  overtook 
alike  the  powerful  and  the  humble.  The  misery  was  felt  throughout  Eng- 
land. The  greatest  bouses  were  brought  to  the  edge  of  the  brink,  and 
some  of  them  went  over  in  the  struggle.  The  custom-house  receipts  fell  off 
nearly  a million  in  a single  quarter.  Half  the  cotton  mills  in  the  country 
were  shut  up.  In  Manchester  and  its  vicinity  50,000  hands  were  unem- 
ployed for  six  months.  At  Glasgow,  nearly  half  the  laboring  class  were 
starving.  It  was  long  before  business  could  resume  its  natural  course,  after 
such  a violent  commotion. 

In  1837,  the  effect  of  railroads  in  driving  stage-coaches  from  the  turn- 
pike-roads, and  the  interference  thereby  occasioned  with  the  transmission  of 
the  mails  by  the  latter,  had  become  so  serious  that  it  was  necessary  to  trans- 
fer the  carriage  of  the  mails  to  the  railroads.  To  effect  this  an  act  was 
passed,  after  a long  debate,  compelling  the  companies  to  convey  the  mails 
at  such  hours  as  the  Postmaster-General  should  direct,  for  a compensation 
agreed  on  between  him  and  the  directors.  But  for  the  resolute  remonstrance 
of  the  united  railroad  interests,  it  is  probable  the  attempt  would  have  suc- 
ceeded to  force  the  companies  to  this  accommodation  without  remuneration. 

This  difference  of  principle,  on  which  the  earlier  railroads  were  sanctioned 
and  constructed,  from  that  since  prevailing,  is  worthy  remark  here.  At  first 
the  railroad  was  a public  way  open  to  the  use  of  all.  The  promoters  of 
the  roads  freely  consented  to  this,  declaring  it  was  no  wish  of  theirs,  and 
could  not  be  to  their  benefit,  to  convey  passengers  or  goods,  and  that  their 
only  desire  was  to  be  toll  proprietors.  Ti;e  Legislature  had  therefore  pro- 
vided that  any  person  might  run  his  own  train  by  paying  certain  tolls.  The 
owners  and  occupants  of  lands  adjoining  the  roads  were  also  allowed  to 
build  branch  lines,  and  all  were  free  to  use  the  portion  of  the  roads  running 
through  their  own  lands  without  paying  for  the  privilege. 

This  was  certainly  a more  democratic  system  to  appearance  than  that  pre-  - 


644 


Ilislory  of  the  KnglUh  Railways. 

vailinfr  after ; but  its  evils  were  soon  discovcrefl,  and  the  monopoly  plan 
substituted  as  one  of  the  necessities  of  railway  inanagement. 

llie  number  of  acts  granted  for  railways  in  the  United  Kingdom  between 
182G  and  1840  amounted  to  one  hundred  and  three,  about  one-third  of 
these  being  ])assed  in  the  single  session  of  183G.  About  twenty  of  these 
roads  were  for  the  exclusive  carriage  of  coals,  stotie,  slate,  iron,  ttc.,  the 
others  for  general  traffic,  though  several  depended  mostly  on  some  particu- 
lar species  of  merchandise.  1'hc  Eastern  (Jounlics  was  the  largest  of  these, 
its  length  being  12G  miles,  with  a capital  of  £2,133,333.  The  J^ondon  and 
Birmingham  had  the  largest  capital,  £5,500,000,  its  length  being  112^ 
miles.  The  Great  Western,  117-?-  miles,  nad  a capital  of  £4,990,909. 
The  total  length  of  all  these  roads  was  about  2,400  miles,  and  tlie  aggre- 
gate capital  £G4, 832, 831.  Notwithstanding  the  furore  of  183G-7,  Great 
Britain  had  not  in  1840  made  a larger  investment  in  railways  than  lier  ex- 
isting business,  with  its  immediate  prospects  of  growth,  demanded.  All  of 
the  roads  were  not  then  paying  the  dividends  which  had  been  expected  of 
them,  but  they  were  enlarging  the  capital  of  the  country,  and  improving 
the  condition  of  the  people,  and  thus  laying  a solid  foundation  for  the  pros- 
perity of  the  proprietors.  The  pecuniary  sacrifice  in  the  construction  of 
them  had  been  vast,  but  the  growth  of  wealth  had  more  than  kept  pace 
w'ith  these  endeavors.  The  advantages  of  the  railway  system  were  to  be 
seen  on  all  hands.  The  tow'ns  and  villages  along  the  lines  grew  more  in  a 
few  years  after  the  railroads  w'cre  built  than  they  had  in  centuries  before. 
In  1801,  the  manufactured  goods  exported  from  Great  Britain  were  of  the 
value  of  £7,000,000,  by  the  official  returns — in  1840,  the  amount  was 
£73,000,000.  The  cotton  trade  furnished  subsistence  to  about  a million 
and  a quarter  of  persons,  most  of  them  dependent  on  the  railway  for  their 
maintenance.  L'he  population  of  England  increased  only  27  per  cent  be- 
tween 1770  and  1800;  between  1801  and  1831  it  augmented  5G  per  cent. 
The  customs  produced  £255,000  in  1801,  and  in  1841  £1,1G0,000.  The 
personal  property  of  the  kingdom  was  estimated  to  have  risen  betw'een  1814 
and  1841,  from  £1,200,000,000  to  £2,000,000,000.  The  entire  products 
of  the  empire  amounted  in  1801  to  £24,927,684  ; in  1841,  they  reached, 
£102,180,517.  To  no  instrumentality  had  this  remarkable  prosperity  been 
owing  more  than  to  railways. 

In  1842,  a modification  was  made  in  the  tax  on  passengers.  Its  opera- 
tion had  proved  unequal,  the  burden  falling  especially  on  the  railways  in  the 
poorer  districts  ; one  company  surrendered  25  per  cent  of  its  gross  receipts 
to  meet  this  impost.  The  effect  had  been  to  raise  the  hires,  diminish  travel, 
and  to  injure  the  value  of  the  roads.  The  lines  passing  through  rich  dis- 
tricts were,  however,  little  affected  by  the  tax.  The  substitution  made  was 
6 per  cent  on  the  gross  receipts  of  the  companies. 

In  1842,  wuis  commenced  the  railway  clearing-house,  on  the  principle  of 
the  banking  clearing  house,  before  existing.  The  object  of  this  system  was 
to  enable  passengers  and  goods  to  go  any  distance  on  paying  one  fare,  with- 
out the  inconvenience  of  a change  of  carriage.  It  was  at  first  vigorously 
opposed  by  some  of  the  railroads,  but  they  have  gradually  yielded  to  the 
public  demand,  until  the  clearing-house  is  now  employed  by  fifty-three  of  the 
railroads.  The  adoption  of  this  reform  is  mainly  due  to  the  persevering  ef- 
forts of  Mr.  Morrison,  Mr.  Glyn,  and  Mr.  Hudson. 

In  1843,  the  gauge  question  was  re-opened,  and  the  leading  engineers  of 
England  were  qu(4titioncd  in  regard  to  their  views  thereon.  Mr.  Geo.  Ste- 


History  of  the  English  Railways. 


545 


phenson  and  his  son  were  alone  in  their  preference  for  the  gauge  of  four  feet 
eight  and  a half  inches.  Mr.  Brunei  was  not  asked,  as  he  was  known  to 
retain  his  opinion  in  favor  of  the  seven  feet  gauge.  Seven  other  engineers 
varied  in  their  preferences  between  these  two  extremes,  no  width  mentioned 
being  supported  by  above  two  names. 

In  1844,  an  effort  was  made  to  enact  a law  which  would  subject  the  rail- 
roads almost  entirely  to  the  control  of  the  government — the  attempt  was 
most  strenuously  resisted  by  the  railway  interest,  headed  by  Mr.  Hudson, 
and  the  effect  was  a material  modification  of  the  act.  As  passed,  the  bill 
empowered  the  lords  of  the  treasury,  twenty-one  years  after  the  passing  of 
any  future  act  for  a railway,  if  such  railway  should  realize  a profit  exceeding 
10  per  cent  on  an  average  of  three  consecutive  years,  to  revise  the  scale  of 
tolls  so  as  to  reduce  the  profits  to  10  per  cent,  insuring  that  amount.  Also, 
to  purchase  any  future  railway  twenty-one  years  after  incorporation,  upon 
payment  of  a sum  equal  to  twenty-five  years’  purchase  of  the  divisible  pro- 
fits on  an  average  of  the  last  three  preceding  years.  Existing  railroads,  of 
which  there  were  fifty-five,  were  exempted  from  the  act.  It  provided,  more- 
over, that  all  future  railways  should  provide  covered  carriages  with  seats  for 
the  third-class  passage,  the  fare  not  to  exceed  a penny  a mile,  with  half- 
price  for  children  between  three  and  twelve  years,  and  free  passage  for  chil- 
dren under  three;  each  passenger  to  have  liberty  of  half  a hundred  weight 
of  baggage,  without  extra  charge  ; these  trains  to  be  exempt  from  taxation. 
It  provided,  also,  for  the  establishment  of  the  electric  telegraph  on  all  lines 
of  railway. 

The  victory  in  this  contest  was  plainly  on  the  side  of  the  railway  interest, 
as  this  act  had  been  confined  in  all  its  important  features  to  unbuilt  roads. 
The  provision  in  regard  to  the  third-class  cars,  practically  the  most  import- 
ant point  of  all,  ought  to  have  been  enforced  in  regard  to  every  railroad  in 
the  kingdom.  Some  of  the  companies  compelled  the  third-class  passengers 
to  stand  in  open  cars,  without  seats,  for  sixteen  or  seventeen  hours  together, 
and  this  without  regard  to  weather.  The  effects  upon  the  health  of  travel- 
ing in  these  conveyances,  from  rain,  snow,  cold,  and  fatigue,  could  not  be 
otherwise  than  most  disastrous.  Yet  the  companies  were  unwilling  to  pro- 
vide any  better  accommodations,  and  when  Parliament  took  up  the  subject, 
began  to  clamor  about  government  tyranny,  and  exerted  every  nerve  to  de- 
feat the  humane  purpose. 

In  1843,  twenty- four  railway  acts  were  passed,  which  was  not  above  what 
the  public  service  required,  Mr.  Francis  thinks.  In  1844,  thirty-seven  more 
were  sanctioned,  with  an  authorized  capital  stock  of  £13,981,000,  and  an 
allowed  loan  of  £4,006,000 — a total  of  £17,987,000.  The  initiative  of 
the  third  and  greatest  railway  mania  was  taken  this  year.  Money  was  again 
very  abundant — interest  from  6 per  cent  in  1839  had  fallen  to  2|  per  c^nt, 
and  the  temptation  was  irresistible.  The  speculation  was  farther  encour- 
aged by  a change  made  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  intended  to  encourage 
the  building  of  railways,  which  had  remained  nearly  stationary  under  the 
previous  commercial  depression,  by  a reduction  of  the  deposit  on  projected 
roads. 

Petitions  increased  so  fast  in  the  latter  part  of  1844,  that  to  check  them, 
an  act  was  passed  making  the  provisional  committees  liable  to  the  extent  of 
their  whole  property.  The  fever  rapidly  acquired  intensity.  Sixteen  new 
lines  were  registered  in  January,  1845,  more  still  in  each  of  the  next  two 
months,  and  fifty-two  in  April.  The  whole  number  of  roads  built  up  to 

VOL.  XXVIII. — NO.  V.  35 


546 


The  History  of  the  English  Railways. 


1844  Imd  been  seventy.  Everybody  wlio  bad  money,  in  larj^o  or  small 
quantity  to  invest,  from  domestics  to  bankers,  sought  the  railways.  'I'he  re- 
markable success  of  the  established  roads  augmented  the  flame.  As  many 
as  twenty  journals  devoted  to  tl)e  railway  interest  were  established,  where 
only  three  had  existed  before,  and  their  profits  from  railway  advertising  were 
fat.  The  leading  papers  received  at  one  time  £12,000  to  £14,000  weekly 
from  this  source.  The  price  of  iron  rose  from  G8s.  to  120s.  per  ton.  All 
kinds  of  labor  increased  in  demand,  and  every  branch  of  Commerce  ])artici- 
pated  in  the  advantages  of  the  increased  activity.  The  excitement  soon  rose 
to  madness.  I^eople  whose  money  was  safely  and  ))rofitably  invested,  sold 
at  any  price,  to  get  into  the  share-market.  Two-thirds  of  the  meml>e,rs  of 
Parliament  were  engaged  in  the  speculation,  while  Parliament  was  condemn- 
ing it.  In  September,  four  hundred  and  fifty-seven  schemes  were  registered, 
although  the  deposit  had  been  increased  to  ten  per  cent.  Scrip  was  sold  at 
the  most  extravagant  prices  in  lines  which,  when  built,  could  not  realize 
their  working  expenses  for  years.  The  tricks  and  frauds  of  the  mania  of 
1836  were  trifling  to  those  now  practiced.  The  details  are  startling,  but  we 
have  not  room  to  quote  them.  At  last  the  phrensy  rose  to  such  a pitch, 
#'that  the  thorouglifares  near  the  stock  exchanges  of  some  of  the  English 
cities  were  so  blockaded  by  crowds  as  to  be  almost  impassable,  and  the  very 
sharebrokers  became  alarmed  at  the  excitement.  To  show  how  far  all 
classes  were  included  in  the  unholy  passion  for  gain,  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
seven  clergymen  were  dealing  in  stocks,  who  had  entered  to  the  extent  of 
sums  varying  from  £26,000  to  o£2,000  each. 

On  the  16th  October  the  Pank  of  England  raised  the  rate  of  interest, 
and  the  bubble  at  once  blew  up.  The  people  awoke  in  alarm,  llie  stocks 
overspread  the  wliole  kingdom.  Ruin  was  felt  in  every  village.  It  is  de- 
clared by  the  best  informed  that  no  other  panic  in  England  was  ever  so  fa- 
tal to  the  middle  classes.  The  crisis  was  so  sudden  that  the  promoters  and 
provisional  committee-men  had  no  chance  of  escaping  the  fate  they  bad 
been  so  much  the  occasion  of  to  others.  “ Such  was  the  melancholy  close 
of  the  high  hopes  of  the  memorable  spring  and  summer  of  1845.’’ 

Since  1845,  the  progress  of  railways  in  Great  Britain  has  been  healthy. 
According  to  tables  lately  published,  the  number  of  miles  of  railway  in  op- 
eration in  Great  Britain,  at  the  present  time,  is  6,976,  which  is  about  one- 
half  the  extent  existing  in  the  IJnited  States,  13,586,  and  near  one- fourth 
the  number  of  miles  existing  in  the  whole  world,  which  is  stated  at  29,606. 
The  miles  of  railway  in  operation  in  Germany  are  5,340;  in  France,  1,831. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  enormous  costs  attending  the  charter, 
the  purchase  of  land,  good  will,  &c.,  by  some  of  the  English  companies.  A 
particular  statement  of  these  expenditures  on  the  part  of  several  of  the 
chief  roads  is  wortliy  of  notice  : — 


Land  and  compensation .per  mile 

Law,  Engineering,  and  Direction 

Parliamentary  expenses 

Total 


London  and  London  and  London  & Great 
Soutli-west’n.Birming’m.  Brighton.  Western. 


£4,000 

£6,300 

£8,000 

£6,300 

900 

1,600 

1,800 

2,500 

650 

650 

3,000 

1,000 

£5,650 

£8,450 

£12,800 

£9,800 

Tlie  Jjondon  and  Birmingham,  which  cost  £8,450  per  mile,  should  have 
been  Iniih,  Mr.  Francis  says,  for  £4,500  per  mile,  and  probably  the  other 
roads  need  have  cost  no  more  than  a pro})ortional  sum.  The  sums  spent 


The  History  of  the  English  Railways. 


547 


by  the  several  contesting  companies  for  the  Brighton  Road,  in  the  endeavor 
simply  to  obtain  an  act,  were  : — 


Reonie’s  Line £72,000* 

Stephenson’s 53,750 

Cundy’s 16,500 

Total 


Gibb’s  Line  . £26,325 

South-eastern 25,000 


£193,575 


In  one  case  £100,000  was  spent  in  Parliamentary  operations,  without  any 
result.  In  another  case,  six  counsel  and  twenty  solicitors  were  employed, 
at  an  expense  of  £57,000.  In  another,  a case  of  competing  lines,  the  Le- 
gislative Committee  were  occupied  on  the  affair  of  one  road  during  the 
whole  of  one  session  and  a month  in  the  next,  at  an  expense  to  the  petition- 
ers of  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  then,  in  despair  of  a proper  conclusion, 
referred  the  whole  to  a military  engineer.  That  such  extraordinary  disad- 
vantages as  these  gave  so  little  check  to  the  railway  progress  of  England,  is 
a remarkable  evidence  of  her  vast  wealth,  and  of  the  irrepressible  energy 
of  the  men  who  have  pushed  onward  her  railway  movement. 

The  “ History  of  the  English  Railway  ” is  a book  well  worth  attentive  study. 
The  railway  is  of  English  birth — it  was  there  nurtured  and  reared — there  the 
effort  was  made  to  strangle  it  in  its  cradle — there  were  the  devoted  friends 
who  stood  manfully  by  it  through  all  report,  and  brought  it  out  safe,  trium- 
phant, from  its  struggles  for  being — there  it  displayed  to  the  admiring 
world  the  wondrous  vigor  of  its  half-opened  energies — and  thither  came  the 
world,  and  carried  thence  the  Hew  Power,  destined  to  compress  the  progress 
of  centuries,  ay,  almost  of  milleniads,  within  the  limit  of  single  years.  The 
railroad  history  of  no  other  country  can  ever  possess  the  interest  of  that  of 
England.  It  occupies  the  same  position  in  the  general  annals  of  steam  land 
carriage,  that  the  steamboat  history  of  America  does  in  the  records  of  steam 
navigation. 

There  is,  besides,  no  one  subject  that,  in  regard  to  the  development  of  any 
of  the  great  civilization  movements  going  forward  simultaneously  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  better  reveals  the  difference  of  circumstance 
thereto  attending  in  the  two  countries,  than  the  railroad.  The  difference  in 
the  obstacles  and  opposition  in  the  mode  of  action,  of  appliances,  even  the 
dissimilarities  of  object,  the  varying  degrees  of  magnitude,  expense,  and  of 
utility  in  the  works,  the  distinctive  modes  of  their  management,  exhibit 
many  of  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  political  and  commercial  systems 
prevailing  respectively  within  the  two  nations.  The  congruities  of  the  sys 
terns  are  also  revealed,  and  there  are  enough  of  them  to  afford  us  a valuable 
aid  from  the  experience  of  our  English  brethren.  The  leading  errors  to  be 
avoided  are  pointed  out  to  us — the  safe-ground  of  enterprise  is  partially  ex- 
plored and  marked  out  before  us. 

We  have  not  alluded  to  all  the  matters  treated  of  in  this  work.  There 
are  biographies  of  the  “ Railway  King,”  of  the  Stephensons,-  and  notices  of 
other  leading  men  connected  with  the  English  railways.  There  is  also  a 
very  interesting  chapter  on  Railroad  Laborers,  and  the  second  volume  closes 
with  a brief  history  of  the  Magnetic  Telegraph. 

Mr.  Francis  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  his  subject,  and  has,  perhaps, 
done  it  as  much  justice  as  any  other  one  man  could.  His  arrangement  of 
matters,  and  his  method  of  narration  are  very  judicious  ; his  literary  abili- 
ties are  very  respectable,  and  his  diction  is  correct,  vivacious,  flowing,  and 
conversational,  although  at  times  rather  ambitious. 

In  the  description  of  leading  incidents  and  remarkable  epochs  he  is  par- 


548 


The  Bearing  of  Physical  Circumstances 

ticularly  happy.  Ills  detailed  history  of  tlie  great  Railroad  Majiin  is  pspe- 
cially  gra])hic,  and  is  calculated  to  ])rofit  the  moral  sense  of  the  reader. 
We  shudder  at  the  nervous  picture  winch  he  draws  of  the  general  demor- 
alization engendered  iiPthe  frantic  })ursuit  of  wealth,  of  the  j)erverse  inge- 
nuity of  men  honest  in  nature,  but  transformed  by  the  demon  of  sf)ecula- 
tion,  and  of  the  hideous  ruin  which  followed  the  terrible  collaj)Be.  We  are 
humiliated  with  the  weakness  of  human  nature  exhibited  in  this  singular 
madness  of  a whole  people — the  madness  of  I'l  people  who  rank  among 
others  as  pre-eminent  in  intelligence,  in  judgment,  in  caution — of  a people 
famed  for  their  practical  cast  of  mind,  and  who  boast  of  their  superiority  to 
the  accidents  of  the  unilluminated  past 

Another  remark  suggested  by  these  volumes  is,  the  growing  custom 
among  men  of  literary  taste  and  refined  temperament,  of  choosing  such  un- 
poetic  subjects,  as  the  branches,  agencies,  or  characters  of  trade,  or  other 
like  hard,  material  existence  or  interest.  There  was  once  an  inveterate  feud 
between  the  man  of  literature  and  him  of  barter.  The  mental  habitudes, 
the  desires,  aims,  labors,  everything  about  the  latter  were  held  in  ineffable 
contemj)t  by  the  former — the  life,  actions,  and  motives  of  the  former  were 
as  much  despised  by  the  latter.  ]3ut  Literature  and  Commerce  (and  what 
has  done  more  to  effect  the  treaty — to  open  the  eyes  of  each  to  the  merits 
of  the  other  than  liailroads)  are  now  in  firm  alliance.  We  have  literary 
merchants  and  mercantile  literateurs.  The  trader  has  found  that  his  world- 
division  is  susceptible  of  a general  embellishment  that  does  not  make  yet 
any  fiction  of  the  leger;  and  the  man  of  imagination  lus^  discovered  how  to 
make  light  readings  on  heavy  subjects,  and  has  realized  at  length  the  long 
uncomprehended  aphorism,  that  the  romance  of  Fact  far  exceeds  that  of 
Fiction. 


Art.  II.— THE  BEARING  OF  PHYSICAL  CIRCUMSTANCES  UPON  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  COMMERCE."^ 

“ God,”  saith  the  poet,  “never  made  an  independent  man.”  In  civilized 
society,  the  mutual  dependence  of  the  individuals  upon  each  other,  is  the 
great  principle  which  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  social  fabric.  And  even  the 
wildest  savage  derives  his  enjoyments  and  his  scanty  comforts,  in  a great 


* The  present  paper  touching  the  Physical  Circumstances  upon  which  the  Development  of  Com- 
merce depends,  was  originally  delivered  as  a lecture  before  the  students  of  Comer's  Initiatory  Count- 
ing Rooms,  in  Boston,  and  is  now  first  published  in  the  Merchants''  Magazine  in  compliance  with 
the  wishes  of  many  who  heard  it.  Mr.  Comer,  the  proprietor  and  manager  of  that  Institution,  is 
justly  entitled  to  the  gratitude  and  support  of  the  public,  for  his  learned  and  laborious  efforts  to  ad- 
vance the  commercial  and  industrial  interests  of  the  country,  by  affording  our  young  men  the  facilities 
for  pursuing  the  various  studies,  the  acquirement  of  which  are  absolutely  indispensable  to  all  who 
aspire  to  the  character  of  the  accomplished  merchant.  To  conduct  with  credit  and  success  the  mul- 
tiform operations  of  a large  and  liberal  Commerce  in  this  nineteenth  century,  demands  a supply 
of  knowledge  greater,  perhaps,  than  that  required  in  any  of  the  occupations  of  life,  filled  by  men 
who  belong  to  what  are  technically  termed  the  learned  professions.— jEd.  Mer.  Mag. 


1899.] 


83 


Comparative  Statistics  of  Australasian  Railways. 

By  Price  Howell. 

|]Rcad  (in  the  author’s  absence)  before  the  Royal  Statistical  Society,  21st  February, 
1899.  SiE  CouETENAT  BovLE,  K.C.B.,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair.] 


British  interests  are  largely  centred  in  tlie  successful  working 
of  the  Australasian  railways.  For  the  greater  portion  of  the 
public  debt  is  absorbed  in  their  constructiou,  and  it  is  from  this 
source  that  a large  part  of  the  colony’s  revenue  is  provided. 

All  the  railways  (with  the  exception  of  a very  small  mileage) 
throughout  the  colonies  are  under  Government  control,  and  not 
only  is  the  prosperity  of  each  colony  largely  influenced  by  the 
results  of  the  management  of  the  various  Commissioners,  but  the 
stability  of  the  colony’s  finances  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the 
increased  net  returns  resulting  from  their  efficient  management. 

The  present  time,  when  the  question  of  federal  control  is  being 
discussed,  seems  opportune  for  bringing  before  the  notice  of  this 
Society  particulars  of  the  extent  and  working  of  the  Australasian 
railways  and  the  difference  of  procedure  in  each  colony. 

The  railway  question  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the 
working  out  of  the  problem,  and  we  need  not  go  into  the  details  of 
the  early  history  of  the  colonial  railways,  to  make  an  interesting 
comparison  between  State-owned  lines  and  lines  constructed  and 
worked  by  private  enterprise. 

The  extent  to  which  the  money  borrowed  by  the  colonies  has 
been  expended  in  railway  construction  is  shown  by  the  following 
statement  of  the  proportion  of  expenditure  on  completed  lines  to 
the  whole  indebtedness  of  each  colony  up  to  30th  June,  1896 : — 


Per  Cent. 


New  South  Wales  59’ 19 

South  Australia  56'7z 

West  „ 48’9I 

New  Zealand  (March,  1896)....  35'97 


Per  Cent. 


Victoria  8o‘oo 

Queensland 5i'66 


Tasmania  (December,  1895)  ....  4.i'6^ 


The  railways  being  under  the  control  of  the  various  Commis- 
sioners in  each  colony,  are  not  subject  to  any  body  such  as  the  Board 
of  Trade  in  England,  or  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  in 
the  United  States,  for  uniformity  in  the  schedules  of  accounts ; 
consequently  in  some  instances  comparative  values  cannot  be 
arrived  at  by  placing  the  figures  of  one  report  against  another, 
and  therefore  various  anomalies  exist  in  returns  of  capital, 
revenue,  and  expenditure,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter. 

G 2 


} r OWE LL — Coir.jmrafive  Slat ist iat 


Si 


[Mar, 


Tlie  accounts  of  tlic  various  Railway  Commissioners  in  tlio 
Australasian  colonics  regard  the  railways,  in  most  c.mscs,  only  from 
the  date  when  the  lines  ai-e  opened  for  traflie.  In  two  cases 
however  the  constructing  authorities  take  account  of  Hie  interest- 
accruing  on  loans  from  the  time  they  arc  raised  to  the  time  th(? 
lines  ai’C  completed,  open  for  traffic,  and  earning  revenue. 

Although  the  primary  object  in  these  Government  undcrtaking« 
is  to  make  the  railways  earn  sufficient  net  revenue  to  cover  then* 
interest  charges — where  the  State  governs  the  railway  system, 
lines  must  of  necessity  bo  constructed  for  the  colony’s  welfare, 
which,  if  looked  at  from  a revenue  producing  standpoint  only, 
would  not  be  attempted. 

In  the  accounts  dealing  with  the  Victorian  and  South  Australian 
railway  capital,  the  expenses  of  floating  the  loans  and  discount  in 
price  of  raising  the  money  are  fully  debited  to  the  cost  of  tlw; 
undertaking.  The  aggregate  deficiency  of  the  railways  in  these 
two  colonies  to  30th  June,  189G,  was  as  follows : — 


A»"reo:ate 

Net  Earnings. 

Aggregate  Interest. 

Deficieney  in  Meeting 
Interest. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Victoria  

22,132,fit5 

30,1 91,898 

7,759,253 

Soutli  Australia 

1 

5,929,521 

7,703>095 

1,773,574 

With  regard  to  the  South  Australian  figures,  loans  to  the 
amount  of  88i,6ooZ.  have  been  finally  paid  off  by  the  treasury 
from  consolidated  revenue.  Although  the  colony  is  relieved  cf 
interest  payments  on  that  amount,  as  the  payment  of  the  loans 
have  not  been  met  from  net  railway  revenue,  credit  should  not  be 
taken  for  these  “ paid  offs  ” in  making  comparisons  of  net  railway 
results  on  working  capital. 

The  vast  area  of  the  Australian  continent  necessitates  a far 
greater  mileage  of  railway,  in  proportion  to  population,  than  that 
of  any  other  country.  The  seven  colonies  of  Australasia  comprise 
an  area  of  3,077,377^  square  miles,  exceeding  that  of  the  United 
States  of  America  (Alaska  excluded),  which  cover  2,970,000^  square 
miles.  When  we  consider  the  immense  traffic  that  has  to  be  dealt 
with  by  reason  of  the  enormous  population,  and  the  long  distances 
that  the  traffic  is  carried  through  the  latter  continent,  and  compare 
this  with  the  small  demands  on  the  railways  on  account  of  the 
sparse  population  in  the  Australasian  colonies,  we  cannot  fail  to 
recognise  the  efficient  manner  in  which  the  colonial  railways  are 
conducted. 

> Coglilan’s  “ Seven  Colonies  of  Australasia.” 

2 Interstate  Commerce  Commission  Report. 


of  Australasian  Bailways. 


85 


1899.] 


According  to  tlie  report  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission, 
the  estimated  population  of  the  United  States  on  30th  June,  1893, 
was  66,551,571,  with  a mileage  of  railways  of  26*51  miles  per 
10,000  inhabitants.  The  population  of  the  Australasian  colonies 
on  31st  December,  1895,  numbered  only  4,238,369  (Coghlan), 
having  30*50  miles  of  lines  per  10,000  inhabitants  (exclusive  of 
private  lines).  The  tonnage  of  goods  trafl&c  dealt  with  for  the 
year  1896  was  as  follows : — 

Tons. 

United  States 765,891,385 

Australasia 10,923,839 

The  following  table  shows  to  what  extent  the  railways  in 
Australasia  have  developed  during  the  past  eight  years. 


Tears  1888-96. 


INew  South  Wales  

Victoria 

South.  Australia  

‘Queensland  (71  years)  

New  Zealand  

Tasmania  

West  Australia  (from  1889) 
Northern  Territory  (from  \ 
1890) J 


Increase  in 
Capital 
Expenditure. 


£ 

9,129,446 

9,896,087 

3>i87,9io 

4,590,168 

2,072,554 

2,358,782 

1,483,741 

69,743 


Gross  Revenue. 
Aggregate. 


£ 

22,692,498 

23,270,785 

8,321,653 

7,298,981 

9,018,525 

1,137,279 

1,224,196 

92,219 


Working 

Expenses. 

Aggregate. 


£ 

13,495,895 

15,102,357 

4,654,160 

4,659,263 

5,688,081 

955,421 

802,624 

75,448 


Net 

Earnings. 

Aggregate. 


£ 

9,196,603 

8,168,428 

3,667,493 

2,639,718 

3,330,444 

181,858 

421,572 

16,771 


The  total  capital  expended,  net  earnings  and  interest  due,  for 
the  year  1896,  are  shown  in  the  various  rejDorts  as  follows  : — 


Kailways. 

Capital 

Expended. 

Interest. 

Net 

Earnings. 

Deficiency  in 
meeting  Interest. 

Surplus.  , 

Year 

ending. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

New  South  1 
Wales j 

36,852,194^ 

1,295,590a  ] 
or 

1,268,529 

f 27,061a 
•<  or 

1- 

June, ’96 

L 

1,377,535b  j 

[ 109,006b 

J 

I'ictoria  

38,108,151 

1,438,603 

854,917 

583,685 

55 

South  Australia 

12,583,443 

468,375 

403,478 

64,897 

— 

55 

Queensland 

16,759,406 

693,911 

44i''32 

252,779 

— 

55 

West  Australia 

2,3  16,824 

94,533 

265,91 1 

— 

171,378 

5, 

Tasmania  

3,521,956 

29,291 

Dec.,  ’95 

The  interest  charges  on  the  railway  debts  are  worked  out  on 
different  principles  in  each  colony. 


New  South  Wales  Bailway  Beport. 

Here  it  is  stated  that  the  rate  of  interest  is  taken  at  the  avei'age 
rate  the  loans  of  the  colony  bear : — 


86 


Howell — Comparative  Statistics  [Mar. 

(a.)  On  tlic  total  capital  expenditure,  on  lines  open — less  the 
moneys  provided  out  of  the  consolidated  revenue  and 
the  amount  of  debentures  paid  olT. 

(b.)  On  the  total  capital  expenditure  on  lines  open. 

Victorian  Railway  Report. 

The  loans  for  railway  purposes,  when  issued,  are  debited  in  tho 
railway  accounts,  together  with  the  discounts  and  expenses  on  sale 
of  debentures.  The  interest  accruing  while  lines  are  in  course  of 
construction  is  charged,  a credit  being  taken  on  tho  unexpended 
balances  at  the  rate  of  2^  per  cent,  for  189G. 

South  Australian  Railway  Report. 

As  in  Victoria,  the  loans  for  railway  purposes  are  debited 
against  railways  when  issued,  together  with  discounts  and  floating 
charges.  Full  interest  is  debited  from  date  of  issue,  no  deduction 
is  made  for  interest  on  unexpended  balances,  but  interest  is  reduced 
by  the  amount  of  loans  paid  off  by  tho  Treasury.  A departure 
from  the  practice  of  the  other  colonies  is  made  by  South  Australia 
in  charging  the  amounts  of  discounts  and  floating  charges  of  the 
railway  loans  against  the  capital  cost  of  lines  constructed,  together 
Avith  a portion  (56,035/.)  of  the  interest  incurred  on  loans  during 
construction. 

Queensland  Raihvay  Report. 

The  amount  of  the  interest  on  each  railway  loan  is  not  set  out 
in  the  reports,  but  an  interest  charge  of  4 per  cent,  on  the  capital 
expenditure  is  taken,  irrespective  of  whether  the  lines  are  open  for 
traffic  or  under  construction. 

West  Australian  Railway  Report. 

Specific  loans  for  railway  purposes,  at  par,  on  amounts 
expended  on  lines  open  for  traffic,  are  considered,  but  not  the 
cost  of  floating  them.  Interest  is  reckoned  on  the  net  amount  of 
the  loans  expended  on  lines  open  for  traffic,  and  interest  at  the 
rate  of  4 per  cent,  is  taken  on  amounts  obtained  from  other 
sources  for  the  construction  of  railways. 

Tasmanian  Railway  Report. 

The  amount  of  debentures  raised  for  purposes  of  construction 
are  shown  in  the  reports,  but  the  amounts  raised  for  surveys 
(55,746/.),  for  deferred  interest  on  the  Launceston  and  Western 
railway  (48,000/.),  and  for  main  line  guaranteed  interest  (87,577/.) 
and  the  interest  on  these  sums,  are  not  included. 

With  all  these  varying  circumstances  operating,  a true  com- 
parison of  the  net  value  of  one  colony’s  railways  with  those  of 
another  cannot  be  formed  on  the  figures  published. 


1899.] 


of  Australasian  Railways. 


87 


To  enable  ns  to  arrive  at  an  equitable  basis  on  which  the 
railways  of  one  colony  can  be  compared  with  those  of  another, 
the  writer  has  prepared  the  following  table,  from  figures  compiled 
from  the  Treasury  returns  and  from  the  railway  reports  of  the 
various  colonies.  It  takes  account  of  what  would  be  chargeable 
to  the  railways  if  interest  on  total  cost  of  construction  was  charged 
(see  “b”  in  statement,  Table  C),  and  (also)  the  actual  interest 
for  which  each  colony  is  chargeable  for  railway  loans  (see  “ a ” in 
statement.  Table  C).  For  details  making  up  these  amounts 
see  Tables  Nos.  Ill — V. 


Table  C. — Financial  Aspect  of  the  Australian  Railways  on  a Comparative  Basis  on 
ZOth  Juney  1896.  (Tasmania,  BecembeVy  1895.) 


Railway. 

Total  Loans 
raised 

for  Railway 
Purposes. 

Discounts  and 
Cost  of 

Floating  Loans 
(less  premiums). 

Net  Amount 
available  from 
Loans. 

Less  Interest 
Paid 

out  of  Loans. 

Less 

Unexpended 

Balance. 

Amount 
Expended  on 
Construction. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

S.  Wales  .... 

— 

— 

Not  obtained 

— 

— 

— 

ctoria  

36,732,845 

548,697 

36,184,148 

— 

1,069,307 

35,114,841 

uth  Australia 

12,465,793* 

433,623 

12,032,170 

56,035 

15^, sn 

11,617,563 

leensland 

18,631,652 

1,135,482 

17,496,170 

— 

148,390 

17,347,780 

orthern  \ 
Territory....  J 

1,162,780 

5,461 

1.157,409 

136,597 

9.764 

1,011,048 

est  Austraha 

2,199,238 

31,770 

2,167,468 

— 

— 

2,167,468 

smania  

3.755,143 

— 

224,724 

3,493,818 

Spent 

on  Construction. 

» a ” Interest  for  Year.  “ b ” 

Railway. 

Net  Amount 

from  Loans. 

From 

Consolidated 
Revenue  or 
other  sources. 

Total. 

On 

Loans  Raised. 

On  Accounts 
Expended  from 
other  sources, 
taken  at  3 %. 

Total. 

S.  Wales  .... 
ctoria  

£ 

35.114.841 

11,617.563 

17.347.780 

£ 

2,993,310 

476,222 

£ 

Not  obtained 
38,108,151 

£ 

1,459,743 

468,375 

711,203 

£ 

89.799 

£ 

1,549,542 

uth  Australia 
leensland 

12,093.785 

17.347,780 

14,287 

509,110* 

711,203 

orthern  I 
Territory....  J 
est  Australia 
ismania  

1,01 1,048 

10 

1,011,058 

45,832 

— 

45,832 

2,167,468 

3.493.818 

149,356 

28,138 

2,316,824! 

3.5^1.956 

89,862 

143,612 

4,481 

844 

94,343 

144,456^ 

V, ^ J 

The  colonies’ 
indebtedness 

The  indebtedness 
of  the  railways 
on  full  capital 
raised  for  rail- 
way construc- 
tion 

^ Of  the  12,465,793?.  loans  raised,  881,600?.  has  been  finally  paid  off  by  the  Treasixry,  thus 
lieying  the  colony’s  indebtedness  by  the  interest  on  that  amount ; but  as  this  has  not  been  met 
om  the  railway  net  earnings,  interest  on  the  881,600?.  at  3 per  cent,  is  included  in  the  “ Total 
interest”  column, 
t On  lines  open  only. 


88 


IIowra.L — Comparative  Statistics 


[Mar. 


The  Relation  of  Net  Faruings  to  Capital. 

To  graphically  illustrate  the  variations  of  net  earnings  in 
relation  to  capital  of  the  railways  in  each  colony  comparatively, 
the  diagram  shown  on  Plate  I lias  been  prepared.  In  it  the 
standard  adopted  is  based  on  the  working  of  the  New  South 
Wales  railways  for  1888. 

The  diagram  on  Plate  II  shows  the  comparative  relation  of 
working  expenses  to  gross  earnings  for  each  colony’s  railways  in 
the  same  manner. 

[In  reading  these  diagrams  it  will  be  observed  that  (in 
Plate  I)  if  the  net  earnings'  increased  annually  in  a 
corresponding  ratio  to  the  increase  in  cajiital,  or  (in 
Plate  II)  if  the  working  expenses  increased  in  corre- 
sponding ratio  to  the  gross  cai-nings — the  same  diagraphical 
line  would  apply  in  both  cases  for  each  sheet.] 

As  will  be  observed  by  reference  to  Plate  If,  the  fluctuations 
in  revenne  and  expenditure  have  been  very  great  during  the  past 
twelve  years,  and  this  fact  is  most  noticeable  in  the  case  of  the 
two  leading  colonies.  , 

From  the  years  1885  to  1891  the  railway  revenue  in  Victoria 
rose  rapidly,  the  accumulated  revenue  during  that  period  being 
17,078,826/.,  outstripping  by  far  the  revenue  obtained  by  New 
South  Wales.  But,  at  the  same  time,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
expenditure  there  during  the  same  period  increased  at  a greater 
ratio,  amounting  to  10,879.313/.  or  63*70  per  cent.  Since  that 
date  the  revenue  has  suffered  as  rapid  a decline,  so  bringing  the 
gross  amount  now  to  less  than  that  obtained  in  1887.  At  the 
same  time  the  expenditure  has  beeu  brought  down  in  even  a 
greater  degree. 

In  New  South  Wales  during  the  period  1885  to  1891  the 
accumulated  revenue  was  14,809,473/.,  while  the  accumulated 
expenditure  amounted  to  9,613,111/.,  equal  to  64*91  per  cent,  of 
the  total  revenue. 

For  the  period  1892  to  1896  inclusive,  the  accumulated 
amounts  and  ratio  in  the  two  colonies  were  as  follows  : — 


llaihvay. 

! 

Accumulated 

llevcuue, 

1892-9G  inclusive. 

Accumulated 
Expenditure, 
1892-9G  inclusive. 

Compared  with 
previous  Six  Years. 

Revenue. 

Expenditure. 

Victoria  

Tsew  Soulk  Wales.... 

£ 

13,730,212 

14,540,514 

£ 

8,713,717 

8,304,087 

% decrease. 

19*61 

1*78 

% decrease. 
19*91 

I -'99 

89 


1899.]  of  Australasian  Hallways. 

In  considering  the  amounts  whicli  go  to  make  up  the  gross 
earnings  various  circumstances  are  to  be  taken  into  account. 
Owing  to  the  geographical  position  of  some  of  the  districts  in 
New  South  Wales  with  which  a large  traffic  is  carried  on,  the 
railways  of  the  adjoining  colonies  are  in  a position  to  secure  a 
large  share  of  that  traffic,  because  their  seaboard  is  much  nearer, 
and  the  railways  tap  the  borders  of  the  colony.  This  is  most 
noticeable  in  the  case  of  the  large  mineral  traffic  at  Broken  Hill, 
which,  although  in  fact,  in  New  South  Wales,  is  only  in  direct 
railway  communication  with  South  Australia.  So  the  latter 
colony  obtains  all  the  traffic.  Victoria  is  in  a position  to  attract  a 
large  share  of  the  wool  traffic  from  the  borders  of  the  river 
Murray  in  New  South  Wales,  owing  to  the  short  distance  to 
Melbourne,  as  compared  with  the  greater  mileage  to  Sydney. 

To  compete  for  this  traffic  special  preferential  rates  are  in  vogue 
in  most  of  the  colonies,  and  have  been  the  cause  of  keen  competition. 

Other  differences  are  in  charges  made  for  services  performed 
by  the  railways  for  other  Government  departments,  which  are 
dealt  "with  differently  in  each  colony. 

Queensland  railways  take  the  credit  under  this  head  for  sums 
amounting  to  33,469^.  during  the  year,  the  departments  whicli 
contributed  this  non-paying  traffic  being  the  Home,  Defence, 
Justice,  Treasury,  Public  Instruction,  Public  Lands,  Mines,  and 
Public  Works.  The  post  and  telegraph  departments  are  included 
in  the  paying  traffic,  though  it  is  difficult  to  understand  why  these 
sre  not  dealt  with  in  a similar  manner  to  the  other  Government 
departments.  It  was  not  till  last  year  (1895)  that  the  New  Zealand 
Railway  department  took  a book-keeping  credit  for  services  per- 
formed for  other  Government  departments  (non-paying  traffic), 
and  thereby  increased  the  gross  revenue  to  the  extent  of  36,152/. 
The  railway  department  of  South  Australia  takes  credit  for 
services  rendered  to  other  Government  departments,  except  those 
rendered  to  Parliament,  the  judges,  State  children,  scholars  attend- 
ing school  outside  residential  areas,  and  a few  minor  items.  The 
gross  earnings  of  the  West  Australian  railways  include  earnings 
from  jetties. 

The  returns  for  Victoria  and  Tasmania  do  not  include  the  value 
for  services  performed  for  other  Government  departments. 

The  extent  of  the  railway  systems  and  the  volume  of  traffic 
carried  on  the  New  South  Wales  and  Victorian  railways  together, 
are  greater  than  those  of  the  combined  railways  of  all  the  other 
colonies.  The  combined  capital  expended  on  railways  and  the 
combined  gross  and  net  earnings  for  the  year  1896  give  a striking 
illustration  of  the  extent  of  the  operations  in  the  two  leading 
colonies,  viz. : — 


90  Howell — Com^mralivc  filatistics  [Mar. 


Capital  Expended. 

Cross  Earninps. 

Net  Earning'S. 

New  Soulli  Wales  andl 

Victorian  railways  j 

All  other  Australasian  1 
Gtovcrnnient  railways  ....  / 

£ 

74,960,315 

51,820,071 

£ 

5,221,809 

3,949»398 

.c 

2,123,440 

1,571,301 

A comparative  table  of  statistics  of  all  tbc  Australasian  Govern- 
ment railways  for  the  year  1896  is  shown  in  Table  1. 

The  cost  of  the  lines  per  mile,  including  equipment,  varies  fi-oni 
14,563/.  for  the  4 ft.  8|  in.  gauge  in  New  South  Wales,  down  to 
3,940/.  for  the  3 ft.  6 in.  gauge  in  West  Australia. 

The  principal  causes  affeeting  the  cost  of  tlio  New  South 
Wales  railways  are  the  heavy  continuous  gradients,  the  substantial 
formation  of  the  tracks,  substantial  station  buildings  and  equip- 
ment, extensive  interlocking  and  other  safe-working  appliances, 
the  high  price  of  labour  and  material  when  the  principal  lines 
were  constructed,  and  the  extent  of  double  and  quadruple  track. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  extremely  low  cost  per  mile  in  West 
Australia  is  due  principally  to  the  large  mileage  that  has  been  laid 
down  when  labour  and  material  were  at  a very  low  price ; to  the 
fact  that  in  recent  cases  the  contractors  have  built  the  lines  at  a 
very  low  rate,  recouping  themselves  by  carrying  the  glut  of  traffic 
for  some  considerable  time  from  the  time  of  completion  of  line 
to  date  of  handing  over  to  the  Government.  Moreover,  in  West 
Australia  the  tracks  and  buildings  are  of  a light  nature,  and  there 
are  very  few  stations  of  importance. 

The  prime  cost  value  of  the  railway  properties  is  far  higher 
than  the  monetary  capital  cost,  for, — apart  from  the  increased  value 
by  the  creation  of  populated  districts  consequent  upon  having  rail- 
way communication, — where  the  land  taken  for  railway  purposes 
is  Crown  property,  under  the  usually  heavy  head  of  property 
acquired,  nothing  is  debited  against  the  railway  capital. 

The  fact  that  the  passenger  and  goods  train  mileage  is  not  kept 
distinct,  except  in  New  South  Wales  and  South  Australia,  prevents 
a fair  comparison  being  made  of  the  two  classes  of  earnings 
throughout  the  colonies.  Having  regard  to  the  total  train  miles 
run,  a great  disparity  is  seen  in  the  various  colonies.  New 
South  Wales  railways  obtain  the  highest  earnings  per  train  mile 
(75.  3 ’686/.),  taking  the  low  rates  of  carriage  into  account;  and  the 
fact  that  New  South  Wales  earns  191/.  per  average  wagon  (for  the 
year  1896)  with  3*68  wagons  per  mile  of  line,  as  against  136/.  with 
2*67  wagons  per  mile  in  Victoria,  and  224/.  for  1*42  wagons  per 
mile  in  Queensland,  shows  the  long  distance  traffic  and  heavy  loads 
that  are  taken  per  train  on  the  New  South  Wales  lines. 


1899.] 


91 


of  Australasian  Railways, 

The  West  Australian  railways,  for  the  leugth  of  lines  open, 
have  a heavy  goods  traffic,  the  average  for  the  year  being  3*85 
wagons  per  mile  of  line,  and  they  earn  153/.  per  wagon. 

Gross  earnings  vary  considerably,  and  may  be  taken  in  two 
groups  as  under  : — 


Year  1896. 

Per 

Train  Mile. 

Per  Mile 
of  Line. 

Year  1896. 

Per 

Train  Mile. 

Per  Jliie 
of  Line. 

New  South  Wales.. 

West  Australia  .... 

New  Zealand  

s.  d. 

7 3-68 

6 10-44 

7 1-85 

£ 

1,114 

913 

592 

Victoria  

South  Australia  .... 

Queensland  

Tasmania  

s.  d. 

5 4-11 
5 8-57 
4 6-91 
4 1*36 

£ 

769 

573 

45^ 

350 

Net  earnings  take  the  following  order  of  precedence : — 


Year  1896. 

Per 

Train  Mile. 

1 Per  Mile 
of  Line. 

Year  1896. 

Per 

Train  Mile. 

Per  Mile 
of  Line. 

s.  d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

New  South  Wales .. 

3 3-44 

501 

South  Australia  .... 

2 

4-04 

234 

West  Australia  .... 

3 5-39 

458 

Victoria 

1 

10-82 

274 

New  Zealand  

2 7-32 

216 

Queensland  

1 

10-32 

185 

Worhing  Expenses, 

The  plans  adopted  in  setting  out  the  details  in  the  schedules  of 
working  expenses  are  not  uniform  in  each  colony,  and  reuder  difficult 
a comparison  of  one  report  with  another.  In  Table  I the  items 
have  been  classified  to  make  as  uniform  a comparison  throughout 
as  is  possible;  where  the  item  “sundries”  occurs,  it  has  been 
divided  pro  rata  over  wages  and  materials. 

For  the  five  years  1892  to  1896  inclusive,  the  amounts  spent 
on  maintenance  of  way  and  works,  per  train  mile,  were  as 
follows  : — 


New  South  Wales. 

Victoria. 

South  Australia. 

Queensland. 

New  Zealand. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

d. 

d. 

1 1-32* 

- 8-23 

- 10-01 

1 3-60 

1 8-41 

* Includes  cost  of  completely  relaying  319  miles  of  main  line  railway. 


while  for  the  year  1896  the  expenditure  under  that  head  ranged 
from  15,  8*5 id,  in  New  Zealand  to  9*39^.  in  South  Australia. 

General  Charges. 

Included  under  this  heading,  as  shown  in  Table  I for  the 
Victorian  figures,  are  “pensions  and  gratuities,”  which  are  mount- 


92 


IIOWELL — Comparative  Statistics  [Mar. 


ing  np  rapidly  and  threaten  to  be  a great  burden  on  ibe  working 
expenses.  The  amounts  thus  charged  for  tlie  five  years  were  as 
follows  : — 


1892. 

1893. 

389  k 

1895. 

1896. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

50,047 

60,629 

77,854 

80,203 

89,737 

An  entire  alteration  has  been  made  in  the  schedules  of  working 
expenses  in  the  last  annual  report  of  the  New  Zealand  mil  ways, 
the  expenses  of  the  departmental  offices,  amounting  to  23,496/., 
being  grouped  under  one  heading.  So  the  branch  departments  are 
thus  under  charged  by  this  amount,  J3ut,  as  a set-olf  against  this, 
credit  recoveries,  16,818/.,  are  also  put  under  a separate  heading 
instead  of  being  distributed  over  the  individual  branches  to  which 
they  belong. 

Diagrams  designed  by  the  writer,  showing  the  relative  variation 
of  branch  working  expenses  and  net  earnings,  in  proportion  to 
gross  earnings  and  per  train  mile,  for  all  the  colonies,  are  shown 
on  Plates  111  and  IV. 

Locomotives. 

Particulars  of  all  the  principal  types  of  locomotives  in  use  on 
the  railways  in  the  Australian  colonies  are  shown  on  pp.  94—99. 
A profile  of  the  main  trunk  line  from  Adelaide  (South  Australia) 
to  Brisbane  (Queensland)  is  shown  on  Plate  X,  by  which  an  idea 
can  be  formed  of  the  nature  of  the  country  traversed. 

The  hauling  power  of  the  principal  types  of  engines  on  the 
New  South  Wales  lines  is  given  on  p,  94. 


fFrom  tlie  New  South  Wales  Railway  Commissioners’  Annual  Report,  1895,  p.6.] 


“P” 

Class. 

<C  J» 

Class. 

“T” 

Class. 

Working 

Working 

Working 

Working 

Grade. 

Passenger  Trains. 

Goods  Trains. 

Goods  Trams. 

Goods  Trains. 

Tons 

Speed 

Tons 

Speed 

Tons 

Speed 

Tons 

Speed 

Hauled. 

per  Hour. 

Hauled. 

per  Hour. 

Hauled 

per  Hour. 

Hauled. 

per  Hour. 

miles. 

miles. 

miles. 

miles. 

1 in  40  .... 

225 

20 

275 

10 

350 

TO 

350 

10 

1 „ 75  .... 

260 

30 

505 

1 2 

580 

12 

615 

I 2 

1 „ 100  .... 

255 

35 

600 

15 

620 

15 

700 

15 

1 „ 150  .... 

330 

35 

700 

18 

650 

18 

750 

i8 

Some  very  heavy  gradients  are  met  with  on  the  Northern  and 
Western  lines  of  Now  South  Wales;  on  the  former  line,  from 


1899.] 


of  Australasian  Railwx  ys.  9^5 

Farqnharson  to  Ben  Lomond,  a distance  of  lOO  miles,  a mean  rise 
of  3,090  feet  is  met  before  reaching  summit  level. 

On  the  Western  line,  up  the  Blue  Mountains,  between  Emu 
Plains  and  Blackheath,  a distance  of  37  miles,  a mean  rise  of 
3,407  feet  has  to  be  negotiated. 

Lengths  and  altitudes  of  the  steepest  gradients  on  the  main 
lines  in  each  colony  are  given  in  the  following  table : — 


Table  of  Steepest  Gradients  on  Main  Lines  in  each  Colony. 


IS'ew  South  Wales. 

lu  Plains  to  Blackheath 

„ Glenbrook  

e Great  Zig-Zag  

fquharson  to  Ben  Lomond  ... 
Imoral  to  Hill  Top  

Victoria. 

wsley  to  Ingliston 

llarat  East  to  Warrenheip  ... 

abury  to  Woodend  

mroy  to  Kilmore  Junction  .... 

South  Austealia. 

llington  to  Nairne 

odwood  to  Mount  Lofty 


Mean  Altitude 

Mean  Altitude 

between 

between 

Stations  named. 

Stations  named. 

ft. 

miles. 

New  Zealand. 

ft. 

miles. 

3,4^7  in 

37 

Belmont  to  Summit  

1,088  in 

24 

510  » 

4 

Sheffield  to  Springfield 

288  „ 

6 

588  ,, 

4 

Port  Chalmers  to  Mihiwaka 

283  „ 

4 

3)09° 
526  ,, 

TOO 

4 

Mangatera  to  Mataman  

282  „ 

5 

New  Plymouth  to  Midhurst 

1,122  „ 

27 

987  „ 

1 I 

Queensland. 

312  n 

3f 

Gowrie  Jn,  to  Toowoomba  .... 

344  » 

8 

^>^38  5J 

244 

Murphy’s  Creek  to  Harlaxton 

1,220  „ 

I 6 

834  » 

242 

Grandchester  to  Victoria 

298  „ 

14 

114  mile  to  Wallangarra 

588  „ 

10 

948  » 

TO 

Ill  mile  to  109  mile 

197  M 

2 

L535 

i6 

Maryland  to  Dalveen  

309  n 

31: 

The  average  annual  repairs  and  renewals  to  locomotives, 
covering  a period  of  five  years  1892  to  1896,  are  as  under  : — 


Wages 

and  Materials. 

Materials  only. 

Total 

Repairs 

Per  Train 

Per 

Per  Train 

Per 

to 

Mile. 

Engine. 

Mile. 

Engine. 

Revenue. 

ft. 

in. 

d. 

£ 

d. 

£ 

Per  cirt. 

N.S.  Wales  

4 

00 

gauge 

4-97 

309 

115 

72 

23-25 

Victoria 

5 

3 

2-49 

213 

0-48 

41 

19-07 

S.  Australia  3 

6 and  5 

3 

35 

3-80 

207 

1-02 

57 

26-83 

Queensland  

3 

6 

33 

1-57 

96 

0-37 

29 

29-90*^ 

New  Zealand  ... 

3 

6 

33 

4-45 

2 1 6 

1-63 

81 

37-59 

* Average  over  four  yeai’s.l 


94 


IToWF.LTi — Comparative  Statist  in 

Principal  Tt/pcs  of  Jjocomoth 


Maker. 


New  South  Wales 
uldwin  Co.,Americ 
ever,  Teacoek  & 1 
Co.,  Manchester,  j 

a ” 

Yictoria. 


11 


;;  -i 

ison,  Campbell  > 
Sloss,  Yictoria  J 


il4 


l’>  13 


Kobison 

& 


Robison,  Campbell 
& Sloss,  Yictoria 

South  Australia. 
Beyer,  Bcacock  & 
Co.,  England 

J.  Martin  & Co. 

Australia 
Dubs  & Co.,  Scot- 
land   

J.  Martin  & Co.,  S. 
Australia , 

Beyer,  Peacock  & 
Co.,  England  .... 

J.  Martin  & Co.,  S. 
Australia , 


QUEE^fSLATSlD. 

Baldwin  & Co 

Evans,  Anderson, 
Phelan  & Co., 

Queensland 

Phoenix  Engineer- 
ing Co.,  Queens- 
land   

Kitson  & Co., 

England  

Dubs  & Co.,  Scot- 
land   

Phoenix  Engineer- 
ing Co.,  Queens- 
land   


Cylinders. 

Working 

Doiler 

Di.'mctcr  of 
Wheels. 

Heating  Surface. 

Dia- 

meter. 

Stroke. 

Pressure. 

Rogic.  ' 

Ciaipled. 

Tubes,  j 

!•  irc- 
l)OX. 

Total. 

ins. 

ins. 

lbs. 

per  sq,  in. 

I 60 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

sq  ft. 

sq.  ft. 

sq.ft  1 

1 21 

20 

2 0 

4 3 

1 ,800 

'5^ 

1,967  1 

20 

20 

160 

3 3 

5 - 

1 ,780 

130 

1 ,010 

21 

20 

1 60 

2 Oi 

4 3 

2,0  1”, 

2,211 

l8 

20 

140 

3 0 

5 - 

i 

] ,050 

95 

1,151 

17 

20 

140 

3 0 

5 - 

971 

83 

1 ,054 

17 

20 

140 

— 

4 6 

971 

83 

1 ,054 

i8 

20 

t40 

— 

5 - 

1,313 

103-7 

1,410-' 

i8 

20 

140 

— 

4 6 

1,050 

95 

1,151 

20 

140 

J radial  1 

13  0/ 

5 - 

971 

83 

1,054! 

- i6f 

! 20 

130 

4 - 

1 

830-79 

89-38 

920- 1| 

. i6 

20 1 

„ ^30-1 
& 145  J 

— 

5 - 

81712 

87-49 

934-fl 

> i8 

21.{ 

130I 
& 145/ 

2 11 

4 <5 

1,195-68 

98-30 

1,29341 

i8 

24 

H5 

2 11 

6 6 

1,123-14 

107-52 

1,230  (S 

^ - 

20 

130 

2 - 

3 3 

498-68 

45'42 

544-] 

20 1 

130I 

& 145  J 

2 - 

3 3 

708-46 

69-48 

777-1 

1 

15 

20 

145 

2 3 

4 6 

795-22 

73*93 

869-: 

> 12 

18 

1 20 

2 2 

4 - 

493 

60 

559 

► 14 

20 

140 

2 2 

4 3 

6L7 

72 

68C 

* 13 

J 

20 

1 20 

2 - 

3 3 

530 

65 

595 

- 95 


1899.]  of  Australasian  Ilailwaijs, 

use  on  Australian  Railways. 


Total 

Grate 

Area. 

Weight  in  Working  Order. 

Water 

Coal 

Tractive  Power 
at 

80  per  Cent, 
of 

Boiler  Fi-essure. 

Gauge. 

Engine. 

Tender. 

Total. 

Capacity. 

Capacity. 

jq.  ft. 

tons  cwt. 

qrs. 

tons  cwts.  qrs. 

tons  cwts.  qrs. 

gals. 

tons. 

ft.  in. 

52-0 

62  12 

2 

34  10  2 

97  3 - 

3^650 

6 

28,777 

I 

J7‘o 

56  10 

3 

31  16  I 

88  7 - 

3,030 

22,187 

U Sk 

J9'75 

62  15 

- 

41  - - 

103  15  - 

3,650 

6 

28,777 

I 

n'o 

43  - 

30  - - 

73  - - 

2,200 

3^ 

13,^04 

> 

17-8 

40  - 

- 

30  - - 

70  - - 

2,200 

3| 

14.026 

(7-8 

38  - 

- 

30  - - 

68  - - 

2,200 

3| 

15,585 

>5  3 

42  - 

- 

26  - - 

68  - - 

2,250 

3^- 

15,725 

tro 

40  - 

- 

30  - - 

70  - - 

2,200 

3i 

17,472 

17-8 

50  - 

- 

— 

50  - - 

1,600 

2k 

14,026 

t5-o 

40  12 

- 

— 

40  12  - 

1,060 

If 

11,798 

■0 

I 

,14*67 

32  12 

- 

— 

32  12  - 

600 

8,875 

9,899 

^5  3 

7’6o 

39  17 

1 

24  5 - 

61  2 1 

2,040 

^ { 

14,976 

16,704 

.;7'37 

38  9 

- 

24  5 - 

62  14  - 

2,040 

5 

11,564 

J 

I 

9*76 

18  10 

- 

10  16  1 

29  6 1 

850 

2i 

7,680 

1 

I 

3-67 

24  5 

2 

17  8 2 

41  14  - 

1,600 

3i{ 

11,213 

12,507 

i 

[>3  6 

I 

r.3’87 

27  1 

- 

17  8 2 

44  9 2 

1,600 

3i 

9,667 

J 

I 

.0-8 

22  1 

- 

15  2 - 

37  3 - 

1,000 

4 

5,184 

3'o 

27  9 

- 

20  5 - 

47  14  - 

1,400 

3f 

8,609 

I 

i 

>3  6 

o'5 

22  17 

- 

22  5 - 

45  2 - 

1,400 

4 

8,320 

06 


How E LL — Comparative  Statist icft 


Principal  Tj/pes  of  Locomoti 


Class 

Maker. 

Cylinders. 

Working 

Boiler 

Diameter  of 
Wheels. 

Heating  Surface. 

Letter. 

Dia- 

meter. 

Stroke. 

Pressure. 

Bogie.  ( 

i^oupled. 

Tubes. 

Firc- 

ho*. 

Tota 

Queensland — Contd. 

ins. 

ins. 

1I)S. 

per  scj.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

sq.  ft. 

»q.  ft. 

sq  f 

r 

Nasni^tli,  Wilson 

Co.,  England  .... 
Yorkshire  Engi- 

necringCo.,  Eng- 

B15<j 

land i 

Evans,  Anderson, 

15 

20 

140 

2 - 

3 

- 

740 

80 

82 

Phelan  & Co., 
Queensland 

Walkers,  Ltd., 

1 

Queensland 

C 16  { 

Baldwin  & Co., 
America  

i6 

20 

1 20 

2 - 

3 

- 

8G5 

86 

95| 

Tasmania. 

1 

Beyer,  Peacock  & \ 
Co.,  England  ....  J 

>52 

22 

150 

2 4i 

4 

781 

80 

86 

B 

142 

20 

140 

2 - 

4 

- 

704 

70 

77 

C 

142 

20  1 

140 

2 - 

3 

3 

704 

67i 

77 

i 

r 

2 

D 

>>  >> 

20 

140^ 

leading  1 

3 -(! 

trailingj 

3 

9 

518 

57 

57 

r 

West  Austealia. 
Beyer,  Peacock 

Co.,  England  ....  1 
Dubs  & Co.,  Scot-  r 

12 

20 

>30 

2 - 

3 

3 

496 

54 

5J 

L 

r 

1 

land J 

Kitson  & Co.,'' 

England  

r 

59 

6'.i 

H 

Dubs  & Co.,  Scot-  ^ 
land 1 

H 

21 

140 

2 - 

3 

1 

637  j 

75 

75 

7 

7 

1 

Kitson  & Co.,  1 

1 

England  J 

r 

Beyer,  Peacock  &^1 

1 

Co.,  England  ....  j 

Neilson  & Co.,  ! 
England  j 

Hi 

20 

140 

2 - 

3 

3 

708 

72 

7 

i 

J.  Martin  & Co.,  S.  j 

i 

r 

Australia J 

Beyer,  Peacock  A'l 

Co.,  England  ....  [ 
Dubs  & Co.,  Scot-  r 

> Hi 

20 

140 

2 - 

3 

3 

703 

72 

7 

N 

land J 

Keilson  Sr,  Co 

1 7 

21 

160 

2 1 

, 3 

2 

920 

93 

1,0> 

Hi 

i5-> 

21 

160 

2 3 

; 4 

- 

778 

89 

8 

o 



21 

160 

2 3 

3 

- 

778 

89 

8 

f 

Dubs  Sr.  Cr> 

. 16" 

22 

160 

2 3 

4 

9 

819 

88 

9 

Beyer,  Peacock 

Co.,  England  ....  [ 
Kitson  Sc  Co.,  f 

• >5 

20 

140 

2 3| 

4 

4 

767 

78 

8 

T 

1 

England  J 

97 


1899.']  of  Australasia7i  Raihvays. 


use  on  Australian  Raihvays — Contd. 


Total 

Grate 

Area. 

Wei 

gilt  in  Working  Order. 

Water 

Capacity. 

Coal 

Capacity. 

Tractive  Power 
at 

80  per  Cent, 
of 

Boiler  Pressure. 

Gau^e. 

Engine. 

Tender. 

Total. 

sq.  ft. 

tons  cwts. 

qrs. 

tons  cwts. 

qrs. 

tons  cwts. 

qrs. 

gals. 

tons. 

ft.  ir. 

13'0 

27  19 

- 

23  15 

- 

51  14 

- 

1,700 

4 

14,000 

i 

>3  6 

•7*79 

29  6 

- 

19  II 

- 

48  17 

- 

1,350 

5 

‘3,^54 

J 

i5'75 

29  15 

_ 

20  10 

50  5 

1,700 

2i 

11,532 

H'i3 

26  5 

- 

20  10 

- 

46  15 

- 

1,700 

2i 

9,812 

13-66 

25  10 

— 

20  10 

- 

46  - 

- 

1,700 

2i 

12,076 

1 

I3  6 

10-87 

28  10 

- 

— 

28  10 

- 

600 

3 

4 

7,777 

J 

' 

1 

97 

19  12 

- 

10  15 

- 

1 

30  7 

- 

832 

n 

7,680 

> 

1 

10-4  1 

32  - 

- 

— 

32  - 

- 

600 

u 

12,621 

1^5  J 

14-6 

25  4 

16  18 

42  2 

1,200 

2 

12,076 

>3  6 

14-6 

26  15 

- 

16  18 

- 

43  13 

- 

1,200 

2 

12,076 

16-7 

53  - 

_ 



53  - 

_ 

2,000 

2i  : 

20,443 

1575 

44  4 

- 

— 

44  4 

- ' 

1,600 

2k  . 

13,464 

1575 

34  10 

- 

23  19 

- ' 

58  9 

- 

2,500 

5 ; 

17,939  - 

i6-z8 

31  16 

- 

23  19 

- 

55  15 

- 

2,000 

5 

12,647  , 

14-6 

29  16 

- 

20  ~ 

- 

49  16 

- 

1,700 

2|  ; 

9,692  ‘ 

J 

1 

VOL.  LXII.  PART  I. 


II 


93 


IIowELL — Compa7'ativc  Statistics 


[Mar, 


Principal  Types  of  Loco.notivet 


Cylinders. 

Working 

Doiler 

Diameter  of 
Wlicels. 

Heating  Surface. 

Class 

Maker. 

Letter. 

Dia- 

meter. 

Stroke. 

Tressurc. 

Bogie. 

Coupled. 

Tubes. 

Fire- 

box. 

Total. 

New  Zealand. 

ins. 

ins. 

11)3. 

per  sq.  in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

sq.  ft. 

sq.  ft. 

sq.  ft, 

bJ 

r 

New  Zealand  "I 

j6 

22 

175 

2 

G 

3 

Cl 

030 

109 

1,048 

Crovernment  ....  / 

. 

Various  Englislil 
makers J 

9} 

18 

140 

1 

G 

3 

_ 1 

300 

34 

394 

F 

10} 

18 

130 

3 

413 

45 

458 

FA^ 

New  Zealand! 

IZ 

18 

160 

3 

*”  2 

480 

50 

530 

Government  ....  / 

r 

Various  English  "I 
makers j 

14 

20 

140 

2 

3 

G29 

57 

686 

LAj 

r 

New  Zealand  1 

1 z 

18 

160 

2 

2i- 

3 

535 

50 

585 

i 

Government  ....  / 

r 

Baldwin  & Co.,  1 
America  / 

15 

20 

135 

2 

4 

u 

80^1-2 

83-5 

487' 

0 

yy  yy 

^5 

18 

130 

2 

4^ 

3 

802 

74*5 

876- 

r 

L 

Nasmyth  Wilson, ! 

England  j 

Baldwin  & Co.,  1 
America  J 

15 

20 

140 

2 

2h 

3 

5 

780 

78 

858 

1 

15 

18 

130 

2 

li 

3 

) 

“ 4 

737-6 

74*8 

812 

r 

New  Zealand! 

16 

20 

160 

2 

G 

4 

6 

885 

87 

073 

i 

Government  ....  J 

( 

Nasmyth  Wilson,  \ 
England  J 

15 

20 

140 

2 

4 

780 

78 

853 

w- 

[ 

New  Zealand  1 

14 

20 

150 

2 

2| 

3 

~2 

G29-1 

53*7 

682 

1 

Government  ....  j 

680 

740 

WA 

20 

t6o 

2 

4J 

3 

3t 

60 

1899.] 


of  Australasian  Hallways. 


99 


'ise  on  Australian  Railways — Contd. 


Total 

Grate 

Area. 

Weight  in  Working  Order. 

Water 

Coal 

Tractive  Power 
at 

Engine. 

Tender. 

Total. 

Capacity. 

Capacity. 

80  per  Cent, 
of 

Boiler  Pressure. 

Gauge. 

sq.  ft. 

tons  cwt.  qrs. 

tons  cwt.  qrs. 

tons  cwt.  qrs. 

gals. 

tons. 

cubic  ft. 

ft.  in. 

I7‘3 

42  18  - 

22  - - 

64  18  - 

1,700 

140 

18,662 

8’o 

17  - - 

— 

17  - - 

300 

22 

4,985 

9*0 

20  - - 

— 

20  - - 

450 

40 

5,655 

io’7 

24  - - 

— 

24  - - 

600 

48 

9,090 

I2’0 

24  - - 

17  - - 

41  - - 

1,200 

120 

10,391 

10*7 

2G  12  - 

~ 

26  12  - 

650 

34 

7,853 

i6’o 

30  15  - 

1910  - 

50  5 - 

1,400 

120 

9,918 

29  5 - 

19  10  - 

48  15  - 

1,300 

120 

1 1,700 

^3  6 

15-S 

32  10  - 

2110  - 

54  - - 

1,400 

140 

12,-93 

i5'7 

28  5 - 

17  lO  ~ 

45  15  - 

1,300 

140 

1 1,700 

i6‘o 

38  - - 

23  10  - 

61  10  - 

1,900 

125 

12,136 

oo 

32  - - 

2110  - 

53  10  - 

1,400 

140 

10,300 

12’0 

37  5 - 

— 

37  5 - 

900 

72 

00 

00 

00 

12*5 

37  5 - 

— 

37  5 - 

800 

70 

12,623 

1 

100 


IIOWKIJ,  —Cowpnrativc  Sfalis'ics 


[Mar. 


Ton-'SHlcs. 

Tf  ilio  Rystcm  universally  adopted  in  America  of  workinc^ 
out  the  ton-miles  of  all  goods  enrried,  and  tlie  passenger  nnit- 
niiles,  Avere  followed  ont  on  all  the  Australasian  railways,  a more 
accurate  opinion  of  the  extent  of  accommodation  for  each  class  of 
tralTic  could  be  formed. 

At  present  Xew  South  Wales,  Tasmania,  and  South  Australia 
are  the  only  Australasian  colonies  where  the  railways  prepare 
statements  of  the  ton-miles;  New  Zealand  formerly  took  account 
of  the  ton-miles  on  the  principal  lines,  hut  has  now  ceased  to  do  so. 

For  the  reasons  that  the  railway  systems  extend  over  so  large 
an  area  in  the  colonies,  and  that  in  some  cases  heavy  suburban 
ti-affic  is  carried  only  short  distances,  the  total  tonnage  can-led  forms 
no  criterion  of  the  extent  of  traflic  transported,  as  the  distance 
carried  fluctuates  considerahly.  For  example,  during  the  year  1800 
New  South  Wales  railways  carried  4,061,131  tons  an  average  of 
6p94  miles,  while  South  Australian  railways  carried  1,056,963  tons 
an  average  of  127*58  miles — the  total  tons  carried  by  the  former 
being  3*84  times  greater  than  that  of  South  Australia,  while  the 
volume  of  traffic  transported,  Avhen  distance  carried  is  taken  into 
account,  was  only  1*93  times  as  great. 

The  revenue  earned  also  shows  a wide  difference  in  the 
respective  colonies  as  under  : — 


Tsew  South  Wales. 

South  Australia. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

Per  ton  carried  

7 8-10 

12  8-35 

,,  mile  

- 1*44 

- 119 

In  the  statements  of  tonnage  carried  for  1896  the  Queensland 
and  West  Australian  railway  reports  do  not  include  tonnage  of 
live  stock  in  total  tonnage,  but  all  the  other  colonies  include  this 
class  of  traffic  in  the  total  goods  tonnage. 

The  great  reductions  in  rates  of  carriage  that  have  taken  place 
on  the  Ncav  South  Wales  lines  within  recent  years,  have  not  only 
induced  a greater  volume  of  traffic,  but  have  caused  agricultural 
and  other  pursuits  to  be  carried  on  further  inland. 

Grain  and  Flour. — During  the  year  1879,  36,249  tons  were 
carried  an  average  distance  of  99*63  miles,  at  a rate  of  voyl.  per 
ton  per  mile ; the  rate  of  carriage  has  been  reduced  recently  until 
in  the  year  1895  the  rate  was  reduced  to  0*586?.  per  ton-mile, 
which  has  admitted  of  the  profitable  cultivation  of  land  further 
inland,  the  average  distance  this  year  being  158*58  miles,  when 


101 


1899.]  of  Australasian  Eaihcays, 

over  seven  times  the  quantity  of  grain  w^as  carried,  viz.,  267,593 
tons. 

This  principle  has  been  adopted  with  regard  to  other  classes  of 
trafiBc : hay,  striiw,  and  chaff  were  carried  to  the  extent  of  22,467 
tons,  an  average  distance  of  33' 10  miles,  at  a cost  of  1*48^.  per 
ton-mile  in  1879;  inducements  were  offered  by  the  reduetions  in 
rates  of  carriage  to  place  more  land  under  hay,  so  that  in  1895,  with 
a rate  reduced  as  low  as  0*42^.  per  ton-mile,  88,581  tons  were 
carried  an  average  distance  of  170*94  miles,  the  quantity  being 
6*34  times  greater,  and  the  distance  5*17  greater  than  the  corre- 
sponding figures  in  1879. 

In  live  stock  the  tonnage  has  increased  6*47  times — 27,805  tons 
being  carried  in  1879,  as  against  179,823  tons  in  1895;  and  the 
distance  conveyed  was  just  doubled,  i34’Oi  as  against  268*32  miles, 
whilst  the  rates  per  ton-mile  were  2*86d.  in  1879  and  I'jgd.  in  1895. 
Other  classes  of  traffic  have  been  dealt  with  similarly,  but  there 
are  no  statistics  available  to  shorv  the  results. 

I am  indebted  to  the  following  gentlemen  for  information  in  the 
compilation  of  returns  contained  in  this  paper,  viz. : — Mr.  T. 
Roberts,  Loco.  Engineer,  South  Australian  Railways  ; Mr.  T.  H. 
Woodroffe,  Chief  Mechanical  Engineer,  Victorian  Railways  ; 
Mr.  T.  F.  Rotheram,  Loco.  Superintendent,  ISTew  Zealand  Rail- 
ways ; Mr.  H.  Horniblow,  Loco.  Engineer,  Queensland  Railways ; 
Mr.  R.  R.  Campbell,  Loco.  Engineer,  West  Australia  Railways ; 
Mr.  W.  E.  Batchelor,  Loco.  Superintendent,  Tasmanian  Railways ; 
The  Under  Secretary  for  the  Treasury,  Brisbane  ; Mr.  Alpin  P. 
Thomson,  Under  Secretary  for  Railways  and  Works,  Perth, 
West  Australia;  Mr.  A.  Day,  Secretary  for  Railways,  Adelaide, 
South  Australia,  and  Mr.  R.  G.  Kent,  Secretary  for  Railways, 
Melbourne,  &c. 

Rote. — It  should  be  remarked  that  after  the  diagrams  were 
prepared  and  reproduced,  a substantial  reduction  in  the  Queensland 
rates  was  accomplished.  This  (though  necessarily,  under  the 
circumstances),  disregarded  in  the  diagram,  has,  as  far  as  possible, 
been  read  into  the  text  under  the  author’s  direction. — Ed. 


102 


11 0 w E L li — Comparaiive  S faiislics 


[Mnr. 


Table  I. — Comparative  Statistics  of  t/ic 


New  South  Wales. 

Victoria. 

— 

Juno. 

Juno. 

£ 

30,852,191. 

38,108,151 

£ 

1 4,503 

12,272 

No. 

521 

517 

No. 

0-20 

0-17 

Miles 

20,913 

22,354 

£ 

5,308 

4,525 

No. 

851 

1,090 

No. 

0-34 

0-35 

£ 

1,200 

1,097 

No. 

9,314 

8,339 

No. 

308 

2-67 

£ 

191 

136 

Miles 

7,719,618 

8,989,391 

Miles 

3,050 

2,880 

£ 

1,021,176 

1,202,258 

£ 

1,775,784 

1,137,174 

£ 

23,457 

61,960 

£ 

2,820,417 

2,401,392 

£ 

403 

385 

s.  d. 

2/7-75 

2/8-10 

£ 

702 

364 

s.  d. 

4/7-21 

2/6-36 

£ 

9 

20 

d. 

-/0-72 

-/1-65 

£ 

1,114 

769 

5.  d. 

7/3-68 

5/4-11 

Year  ending..., 


Cabital  Expended. 


Lines  open 


r Total  .... 
1 Per  mile 


Eollino  Stock. 


Locomotives. 

Total  — 

N umber  per  mile  worked — 

AA’Ci’agc  mileage  run Per  engine 

„ earnings  „ 


Carriages. 

Total  (produetive  to  revenue)  — 

Number  per  mile  worked — 

Average  earnings  Per  carriage 

Wagons. 

Total  (productive  to  revenue)  — 

Number  per  mile  worked — 

Average  earnings  Per  wagon  .. 


Teain  Miles 


/Total  

\ Per  mile  of  line 


Eailway  Eaenings. 


Passengers,  <&c. 

Groods,  &c 

Other  receipts 


Total 


. r Per  mile  of  line 

° ° t „ tram  mile 

Goods,  &c..  ( ” 

> ’ train  mile 

receipts  | ” 

^ t „ tram  mile  , 


Other 


Total 


earnings 


mile  of  line 
train  mile 


1899.] 


of  Australasian  Railways. 


103 


iistralasian  Government  Railways,  Year  1896. 


^outli  Australia. 

Queensland. 

New  Zealand. 

Tasmania. 

West  Australia. 

Northern 

Territory. 

June. 

J une. 

March. 

Dec.,  1895. 

June. 

June. 

12,583,443 

16,759,406 

15,487,219 

3,521,956 

2,316,824 

1,151,223 

7,305 

7,024 

7,694 

8,390 

3,940 

7,912 

308 

275 

270 

61 

74 

6 

0*18 

0-12 

0-14 

0*14 

013 

0*04 

15,540 

18,836 

15,728 

15,222 

— 

7,089 

3,115 

3,947 

4,230 

2,242 

6,800 

2,154 

289 

328 

509 

204 

107 

5 

0-17 

0-14 

0-25 

0-48 

0*18 

0-03 

999 

990 

872 

309 

1,517 

754 

5,618 

3,390 

8,319 

898 

2,232 

133 

3 26 

1-42 

4-16 

2-10 

3-85 

0-91 

119 

224 

84 

82 

153 

69 

3,452,648 

4,744,734 

3,307,226 

727,577 

1,541,750 

31,721 

2,004 

1,993 

1,655 

1,703 

2,658 

218 

288,594 

324,790 

443,970 

63,006 

162,343 

3,772 

670,961 

760,704 

698,115 

, 73,738 

340,851 

9,149 

26,945 

— 

40,956 

12,898 

26,422 

2,184 

986,500 

1,085,494 

1,183,041 

149,642 

529,616 

15,105 

168 

136 

222 

148 

280 

26 

1/8*06 

1/4-43 

2/8-22 

1/8-78 

2/1*27 

2/4-54 

390 

320 

349 

172 

588 

63 

3/10-64 

3/2-48 

4/2*66 

2/0-32 

4/5-06 

5/9-22 

15 

— 

21 

30 

45 

15 

-/1*87 

— 

-/2-97 

-/4-26 

-/4-11 

1/4*52 

573 

456 

592 

350 

913 

104 

5/8-57 

4;'6-91 

7/1*85 

4/1-36 

6/10-44 

9/6-28 

104 


IIowi-'jiL — Comparative  Statistics  [Mar. 

Table  I Contd. — CoTn^mrative  Statistics  of  tJm 


New  Soutli  Wnlcs. 

Vrrtorin. 

June. 

June. 

.c 

27,G.30 

1 Wages, 

[ 290,0  41  ; 

£ 

it 

22.3,  .11 4 
52,410 

£ 

37,439 

1 Materials, 

1 75,207 

£ 

10,171 

J 

£ 

350,90  t 

305,848 

£ 

139 

117 

s.  d. 

-/ 10-91 

-/9-77 

Per  eeiit . 

12-44 

15-24 

£ 

24,773 

11,000 

£ 

4S 

22 

d. 

0-77 

0-31 

£ 

220,553 

196,819  1 

£ 

435 

381 

d. 

7-04 

5-26 

£ 

71,488 

117,970 

£ 

1.37 

228 

d. 

2-22  1 

! 3-15 

£ 

38,022 

1 26,392 

£ 

74 

1 51 

d. 

1-20 

0-70 

£ 

132,007 

78,207 

£ 

253 

151 

d. 

4-11 

2 09 

£ 

38,939 

19,502 

£ 

75 

38 

d. 

1-21 

0 52 

£ 

170,946 

97,709 

£ 

328 

189 

d. 

5-32 

2-61 

£ 

532,382 

450,490 

£ 

1,022 

871 

.5.  d. 

1/4-55 

1/0-03 

Per  cent. 

18-88 

18-76 

£ 

210 

144 

£ 

143,799 

88,258 

d. 

4-47 

2-36  ' 

Per  cent. 

5-10 

368 

£ 

57 

28. 

1 

Year  ending... 


Working  Expenses. 


Total 


Maintenance  of  Wai/  and  Iforks. 

Salaries,  oHIce  exiienses, 

&e 

Maintenance  f AVages 
of  Avay  ....  L Material 
Bridge.s,  stations,  build- 1 

i'lffs J 

Sundries 


Total  way  and  works 


Per  mile  of  fine 

,,  train  mile  

„ ecut.  of  gross  earnings 


Locomotive  'Expenses. 

Total  


r lou 

Superintendence,  office  J 
expenses,  &e [ 


engine 

train  mile 

Total  

I^Wages -i  Per  engine  

[ ,,  train  mile 

f Total  

Kunning  < Per  engine  

oY.->oT-»ar>a  ^ ^ train  mile 

. AVater,  oil,  ". 

L and  tallow  1 engine  ...... 

tram  mile 


expenses 


Repairs  | 
and  re- 
newals 


[Total  

j^AA^ages < Per  engine 

i [ train  mile 

I [Total  

Materials....  *1  Per  engine  

[ ,,  train  mile 


I AVages  and  J ‘v 

l materials  1 

, train  mile 


Total 
power 


fTotal  

1 I Per  engine  

locomotive  \ , ., 

,,  tram  mile  

I „ cent,  of  gross  earnings 

,,  mile  of  line 


Carriafie  and  Wagon^ 
R<q)airs  


•Total  

Per  train  mile  

,,  cent,  of  gross  earnings 
,,  mile  of  line 


1899.] 


of  Australasian  Bailway s. 


105 


ustralasian  Government  Railways^  Year  1896. 


?oulli  Australia, 

Queensland. 

New  Zealand. 

Tasmania, 

West  Australia. 

Norlliern  J J 
Tenitcry. 

June. 

June, 

March. 

Dec.,  1895. 

J une. 

June. 

17,006 

11,163 

j Combined  under  "1 

1_  special  heading  f 

1,018 

r 

1 

140,815 

— 

— 

I 

60,039 

— 

— 

118,063 

237,304  <{ 

1 

78,496 

— 

— 

|>  9,624 

I 

L 

3,243 

— 

— 

I 

J 

135,069 

248,467 

282,593 

46,548 

56,036 

10,642 

78 

105 

141 

109 

97 

73 

-/9-39 

1/0-57 

1/8-51 

1/3-35 

-/8-73 

6/8-52 

13-69 

22-89 

23-89 

31-10 

10-58 

70-45 

12,320 

7,515 

r Combined  under  \ 
\ special  heading  f 





268 

40 

27 

— 

— 

— 

45 

0-85 

0-38 

— 

— 

— 

2-02 

85,964 

76,816 

75,646 

— j 

i — 

894 

279 

279 

280 

— j 

1 — 

149 

5-98 

3-89 

5-49 

— 1 

[ — 

6-77 

45,248 

147 

44,308 

41,890 

- 

[ — 

454 

161 

155 

_ 1 

76 

3-15 

2-24 

3-04 

- i 

: — 

3-44 

17,964 

15,082 

8,689 

— 

146 

58 

55 

32 

— ! 

1 

24 

1-25 

0-76 

063 

— 

1-10 

41,457 

20,004 

39,974 

_ 

: 

459 

135 

73 

148 

— 

— 

76 

2-88 

1-01 

2-90 

— 

— 

3-47 

18,626 

10,104 

19,469 

— 

— ! 

63 

60 

37 

72 

— 

— 

11 

1-29 

0-51 

1-41 

— 

— 

0-48 

60,083 

30,108 

59,443 



f 

522 

195 

110 

220 

— 



87 

4-17 

1-52 

4-31 

— 

— 

3-95 

221,579 

173,829 

185,668 

38,381 

101,692 

2,284 

719 

. 632 

687 

629 

— 

381 

1/3-40 

-/8-79 

1/1-47 

1/066 

1/3-83 

1/5-28 

22-47 

16-01 

15-69 

25-65 

19-20 

15-12 

129 

73 

93 

90 

175 

16 

1 

1 

1 

r 

!■  62,882 

29,467 

54,693 





257 

1 4-37 

1-49 

3-97 

, — 

— 

195 

6-37 

2-72 

4-62 

— 

— 

1-70 

^ 37 

12 

27 

— 

J 

1 — 

2 

lOG 


JTowkll — Comparative  Statistics  [Mar. 

Table  I Contd. — Comparative  Statistics  oj  th 


Year  ending... 

Working  Expenses — contd. 


Traffic  ’Expenses 
chiding  oiling 
greasing) 


r Total  

J Per  train  mile  

I ,,  cent,  of  gross  earnings 
[ ,,  mile  of  line 


Orneral  Charges  . >«- JJ,  „.„in  mile  

eluding  gratuities.^  cent,  of  gross  earnings 
and  pensions) ^ mile  of  line 


Compensation. 


'Total  

Per  train  mile  

„ cent,  of  gross  earnings 
,,  mile  of  line 


r Total  

ff  ees  I train  mile 


'Departmental 

(not  cliargoi,  ugainsi..  cent,  of  gross  earnings 

each  brand.)  [ ” ,„iieofri„e 


Credit  Recovei'ies  (not 
credited  to  individual- 
branches)  


Total  

Per  train  mile  

,,  cent,  of  gross  earnings 
,,  mile  of  line 


r Total  

Total  working  j Per  train  mile  

Expenses  ] „ cent,  of  gross  earnings 

,,  mile  of  line 


Net  Earnings 


fTotal  

I Per  train  mile  

I ,,  cent,  of  gross  earnings 


1 ,,  mile  of  line , 

j Average  per  cent. 
1^  capital  cost 


to 


Gross  Earnings, 


Total  

Per  train  mile 
,,  mile  of  line 


Accidents  (whether  from  own  want  of  caution 
or  not). 

r Killed 

lo  passengers j In  jured  

, r Killed 

>■  employees t Injured  


Total  Miles  Open. 


New  Soutli  WhIcs. 

Victoria. 

— 

J line. 

J une. 

413,130 

499,583 

s.  d. 

] / 1 -78 

1/1-34 

Per  cent. 

15-71 

20-80 

£ 

175 

160 

.e 

fM.,757 

134,770 

d. 

2 01 

3-60 

Per  cent. 

2-30 

5-61 

£ 

20 

43 

£ 

15,248 

7,321 

d. 

0-47 

0-19 

Per  cent. 

0-54 

0-31 

£ 

0 

3 

£ 

d. 

— 

— 

Per  cent. 
£ 

_ 

£ 

d. 

— 

— 

Per  cent. 

— 

— 

£ 

— 

— 

£ 

1,551,888 

1,546,475 

s.  d. 

4/0-24 

3/5-29 

Per  cent. 

55-02 

64-40 

£ 

613 

495 

£ 

1,268,529 

854,917 

s.  d. 

3/3-44 

1/10-82 

Per  cent. 

44-98 

35-60 

£ 

501 

274 

Per  cent. 

3-44 

2-24 

£ 

2,820,417 

2,401,392 

s.  d. 

7/3-68 

5/4-11 

£ 

1,114 

769 

1 

in  10,502,524 

1 

in  13,664,599 

— 

1 

„ 420,109 

1 

„ 397,998 

— 

1 

„ 1,218 

1 

„ 1,106 

— 

1 

„ 125 

1 

„ 65 

Milos 

2,531i 

3,122i 

Miles 

2,531i 

3,121 

Average 


1899.] 


of  Australasian  Railways. 


107 


stralasian  Government  Railways.,  Year  1896. 


util  Australia. 

Queensland. 

New  Zealand. 

Tasmania. 

West  Australia. 

Northern 

Territory. 

June. 

June. 

March. 

Dec.,  1895. 

June. 

June. 

146,127 

166,966 

207,253 

29,891 

91,389 

1,805 

-/1016 

-/8-44 

1/3-04 

-/9-86 

1/2-69 

1/1-65 

14-81 

15-38 

17-52 

19-98 

17-82 

. 11-95 

85 

70 

104 

70 

163 

12 

15,841 

25,633 

14,483 

5,531 

11,588 

300 

1-10 

1-30 

1-05 

1-82 

1-80 

2-27 

1-61 

2-36  ’ 

1-22 

3-69 

2-19 

1-99 

9 

11 

7 

13 

20 

2 

162 

0-01 

0-02 

Included 

Included 

— 

— 

1 

> under  other 

under  other  < 

— 

beads 

heads 

— 

— 

0-01 





23,496 





__ 

— 

— 

1-71 

— 

— 



— 

— 

1-99 

12 

~ 

— 

— 





16,818 







— 

— 

1-22 

— 

— 



— 

1-42 

8 

— 

— 

— 

583,022 

644,362 

751,368 

120,351 

263,705 

15,289 

3/4-53 

2/8-59 

4/6-53 

3/3-69 

3/5-05 

9/7-67 

59-10 

59-36 

63-51 

80-42 

49-79 

101-22 

339 

271 

376 

282 

455 

105 

403,478 

441,132 

1/10-32 

431,673 

29,291 

265  911 

Loss  184 

2/4-04 

2/7-32 

-/9-67 

3/5-39 

— 

40-90 

40-64 

36-49 

19-58 

50  21 



234 

185 

216 

68 

458 

— 

3-21 

2-63 

2-80 

0-83 

11-48 

— 

986,500 

1,085,494 

1,183,041 

149,642 

529,616 

15,105 

5/8-57 

4/6-91 

7/1-85 

4/1-36 

6/10-44 

9/6-28 

573 

456 

592 

350 

913 

104 

Nil 

1 2,717,978 
Nil 

1 Not  r 

> published  < 

1 in  4,162,426 

1 „ 320,187 

1 ,,  995 

1 Not 

> published 

Not  f 
published  < 

Nil 

>> 

1 in  120 

in  report 

1 „ 44 

in  report 

in  report 

! l,722i 

2,386 

2,013 

419f 

588 

145i 

1,7221 

2,380 

1,998 

427i 

580 

145^ 

108 


Howell — Comparalive  Staiidics  [Mai-. 

Tahle  H. — llailway  Rates  for  the  Rrrnei 


Colony. 


N.  S.  Wales  I 
Victoria 

L 

S.  Australia  "I 
Queensland  | 
N.  Zealand  | 

N.  S.  Wales.... 
Victoria  


S.  Australia  <1 

N.  Zealand  .... 

N.  S.  Wales.. 

Victoria  

S.  Australia.. 
Queensland.. 
N.  Zealand  .. 


N.  S.  Wales 
Victoria  ....*| 

S.  Australia 

Queensland  | 
N.  Zealand .... 

N.  S.  Wales  | 

Victoria 
S.  Australia.... 
Queensland 
N.  Zealand  ... 


Class  of  Goods. 


Aoeicultuhal  Peo- 

DUCE.  - 

Grain  of  all  kinds,  I 
flour,  and  ])otatoc8  | 

Grain  of  all  kinds  (ex- 
cept ])otatoes)  

Potatoes  only 

Agricultural  produce 

Grain  of  all  kinds 

,,  „ and  1 

potatoes J 

Flour,  bran,  pollard 

Grain  of  all  kinds,! 
Hour,  and  potatoes  J 

Hay,  Steaw,  Chaff. 


irydraulic  or  steam  J 
pressed  | 

Feuit. 

Fresh,  packed  

,,  ,,  in  cases .... 

)>  

33  

Daiey  PEOUrCE. 
Dairy  produce,  butter,  1 

eggs,  cream,  &c J 

Dairy  produce  (not  \ 
otherwise  specified)  J 
Dairy  produce,  butter.... 
Dairy  produce  (not ! 

otherwise  specified)  J 
Dairy  produce,  butter,  \ 

eggs,  cheese,  &c j 

Butter,  packed 

Meat. 

F resh 

Frozen  

Fresh 

Frozen  

Fresh 

33  

Frozen  

Fresh 


Conditions. 


“Up”  journey;  mini- 1 

mum  6 tons  J 

“ Down  ” journey 

IVrininium  6 tons  | 

>>  3 J)  »• 

3 )>  

„ I » 

Tn  truck  loads  forshipment 
Minimum  li  tons 

IMininuuu  6 tons  

5 ..  

1 

,,  5^  tons,  broad  | 

piigc [- 

Minimum  4I  tons,  narrow 

J 

3 tons 

Minimum  i ton  

Minimum  r ton  

Actual  w'eight  '. 

Minimum  10  cwt 

„ 3 tons 

I ton  

Minimum  10  cwt 

Minimum  4 tons  

,,  >2  n 

„ 5 » 

))  8 J5  

33  3 33  

Minimum  6 tons  


per  ton 


J 


per  ton 


i .Mi 

.a.  i 

bs. 

j 20. 

S.  (1. 

s.  (i 

1 3 

2 ◄ 

2 5 

3 ^ 

2 - 1 

2 ^ 

1 .3  ! 

z 

3 - 

5 

1 G 

2 1 1 

2 G* 

3 ^ 

1 3 

2 1 

i 3 5 1 

4 ' 

1 8 1 

II' 

2 G 

3 - 

1 4 

2 \ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2 _ 

2 1 1 

2 0 

3 I’ 

2 - 

3 ^ 

2 G 

3 

5 2 

6 c 

2 2 

3 

3 10 

7 - 

3 10 

6 t 

3 - 

5 ' 

2 6 

3 f 

5 10 

9 - 

2 6 

3 

— 

— 

2 9 

3 ’ 

— 

— 

3 - 

5 • 

3 - 

5 

— 

— 

6 5 

10 

* A rebate  of  20  per 


1899.] 


of  Australasian  Itailways. 


109 


IS  of  Goods  Carried.  Year  1896. 


Miles. 


30. 

40. 

50, 

75. 

100. 

150. 

200. 

300. 

400. 

500. 

. d. 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

d. 

£ 5. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

5. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

- 

3 

1 1 

-■ 

4 

9 

- 

6 

9 

- 

8 

- 

- 9 

8 

-11 

4 

- 

12 

4 

- 

13 

4 

- 

H 

- 

9 

6 

- 

- 

7 

2 

- 

to 

4 

- 

13 

- 

- 18 

- 

1 2 

5 

I 

9 

- 

1 

15 

7 

2 

2 

2 

6 

5 

- 

- 

5 

6 

- 

7 

6 

- 

9 

4 

- 12 

4 

-16 

4 

- 

^9 

- 

1 

1 

1 

— 

9 

3 

6 

- 

4 

3 

- 

6 

3 

- 

8 

4 

- 1 1 

8 

-15 

- 

I 

I 

8 

1 

8 

4 



4 

9 

5 

- 

11 

6 

- 

15 

8 

- 

19 

10 

I 7 

I 

1 14 

5 

2 

9 

- 

3 

3 

7 

3 

18 

2 

3 

5 

6 

- 

6 

9 

- 

8 TO 

- 

10 

11 

- 14 

I 

-16 

2 

I 

4 

1 

4 

6 

I 

8 

8 

- 

6 

3 

- 

7 

6 

- 

10 

8 

- 

13 

9 

- 17 

1 1 

1 2 

1 

I 

8 

4 

1 

14 

7 

2 

- 

10 

11 

3 

9 

- 

4 

7 

- 

6 

8 

- 

8 

9 

- 1 1 

II 

-15 

- 

- 

19 

2 

1 

3 

4 

I 

7 

6 

2 

7 

10 

- 

8 

8 

- 

lO 

7 

- 

11 

7 

- 13 

8 

-15 

7 

- 

19 

8 

1 

3 

10 

I 

8 

- 

7 

3 

2 

3 10 

4 

4 

4 

8 

- 6 

6 

- 8 

1 

9 

9 

11 

2 

1 2 

6 

- 

5 

- 

- 

5 

6 

- 

8 

- 

10 

6 

- 15 

- 

-17 

- 

- 

•9 

1 

1 

1 

2 

— 

10 

4 

I I 

- 

6 

1 

- 

7 

I 

- 

9 

10 

- 12 

8 

-14 

7 

- 

18 

3 

1 

2 

- 

I 

5 

9 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

I 11 

5 

_ 

_ 

6 

_ 

_ 

8 

7 

_ 

10 

10 

-15 

_ 

-18 

8 

I 

4 

2 

1 

9 

8 

I 

^5 

2 

i 6 

6 

8 

- 

8 

3 

- 

1 1 

7 

- 

14 

11 

- 19 

6 

1 4 

1 

I 

10 

1 1 

1 

17  10 

t 10 

6 

I 

- 

7 

4 

- 

9 

5 

- 

11 

6 

- 14 

7 

-17 

9 

I 

4 

- 

1 

10 

3 

I 

16 

6 

» - 

6 

3 

- 

7 

6 

- 

lO 

8 

- 

13 

9 

- 17 

1 1 

1 2 

1 

I 

8 

4 

1 

14 

7 

2 

_ 

10 

► 3 

1 1 

9 

13 

~ 

- 

15  II 

- 

17 

5 

I - 

6 

1 3 

5 

I 

9 

6 

1 

15 

9 

2 

2 

- 

. 6 

7 

2 

- 

810 

- 

13 

- 

- 

17 

2 

I 4 

8 

1 11 

4 

2 

I 

4 

2 

11 

4 

3 

I 

4 

• - 

H 

1 1 

18 

2 

1 

7 

6 

1 

16  11 

2 15 

- 

3 8 

9 

4 

1 1 

8 

5 

10 

_ 



» 5 

I z 

2 

- 

1411 

I 

2 

- 

1 

8 

8 

2 2 

5 

2 11 

7 

3 

5 

4 

3 

14 

6 

— 

' 4 

9 

5 

- 

11 

6 

- 

15 

8 

- 

19  10 

I 7 

I 

114 

5 

2 

9 

- 

3 

3 

7 

3 

18 

2 

i - 

6 

3 

- 

7 

6 

- 

10 

8 

- 

13 

9 

- 17  II 

1 2 

1 

I 

8 

4 

1 

14 

7 

2 

_ 

10 

! 5 

H 

1 1 

- 

17 

5 

I 

3 

2 

1 

6 

6 

I 12 

9 

116 

6 

2 

4 

10 

2 

13 

2 

3 

I 

6 

1 9 

5 

72 

- 

610i 

- 

9 

4I 

_ 

12 

5 

- 16 

loj 

1 2 

1 

I 

I 2 

6 

2 

2 

11 

2 

13 

4 

— 

- 18 

9 

1 3 11 

I 

14 

4 

2 

4 

9 

2 

^5 

2 

i 6 

6 

8 

- 

8 

3 

- 

1 1 

7 

- 

14 

11 

- 19 

6 

1 4 

1 

I 

10 

1 1 

1 

17 

10 

^ n 

4 

4l 

- 

5 

6 

- 

8 

- 

10 

11 

- 16 

5 

1 llOi 

1 

12 

10 

2 

3 

9 



’ 4 

9 

5 

- 

11 

6 

- 

15 

8 

- 

19 

10 

I 7 

114 

5 

2 

9 

- 

3 

3 

7 

3 

18 

2 

! - 

10 

6 

- 

13 

- 

- 

18 

3 

1 

3 

5 

' I II 

9 

2 - 

1 

z 

1 2 

7 

3 

5 

1 

3 

17 

7 

— 

1 

— 

10 

I 9 

1 17 

6 

2 

5 

10 

2 

14 

2 

3 

6 

^ 6 

i8 

7 

1 

2 11 

I 

9 

8 

1 

13 

7 

2 - 

I 

2 3 10 

2 

12 

2 

h 

6 

3 

8 

10 

on  iliese  rates. 


no 


Howell — Comparative  Statistirs 

Table  IF  Contd. — Ilailu'aif  Jtatc^ 


[Mar. 

for  the  Prin> 


Colony. 


N.  S.  Wales  j 


Victoria 

S.  Australia.... 
■Queensland... 


N.  Zealand 


N.S.Walesj 

Victoria 

S.  Australia 


[ia-| 

Queensland  | 
N.  Zealand 


N.S.Walesj 

Victoria  

S.  Australia 


N.  Zealand ... 


N.  S.  Wales... 


Victoria  .... 


S.  Australia  | 
Queensland  < 


N.  Zealand .... 


N.S.Walesj 

Victoria  ....  |^ 

8.  Australia.... 
Queensland.... 
N.  Zealand  .... 


Class  of  Goods. 


Coal. 

For  homo  consumption 


shipment 


brown  coal,  lignite  and  1 
coke  J 


Native  brown  coal  .... 
,,  anthracite  or 
bituminous  


Timber. 


Logs,  mining  props, 


piles,  and  girders 
Logs,  piles,  hard  wood, &c. 
Mining  props,  slabs,  &c. 
S.  Australian  grown....  I 
Logs,  piles,  girders,  V 
hardvvood(imported)  J 
Logs,  piles,  girders,  1 

hardwood  j 

Native  grown  

Imported  


Wool. 


Greasy 
Scoured , 


Greasy  

Scoured  

Undumped  

Live  Stock. 


Full  rate  

Store  rate j 

Sheep  only,  off-day  rate  ^ 
„ „ goodstruck  j 

rate  J 

Cattle  or  horses  \ 

Sheep / 

Cattle  (except  north- 1 

ern  line) J 

Sheep  (except  central  1 
railway) J 


Cattle  or  sheep 
Ores. 

Ores  under  50?.  perl 


ton  in  value  / 

Copper,  lead,  tin,  ores,  1 

clays,  &c J 

Copper,  lead,  silver,  &c. 


Condilions. 


Minimum  (>  tons  

InCoinmrs.’l  . , t 

including 
wagons....  I . ^ 

T , > cost  ot  • 

w«“.J 


Minimum  6 tons 


Minimum  4 tons 


Minimum  6 tons 


In  bales  of  4 cwt. 
In  truck  loads  .... 


„ ,,  containing! 

6 cattle  or  horses J 

In  truck  loads,  containing  \ 

70  sheep J 

In  truck  loads,  containing  I 
6 fat  cattle  or  50  to  60  > 
fat  sheep  J 


Minimum  6 tons 


Minimum  4 tons 


Miles. 

10.  2(1 


per  ton 


100  sup.  ft. 


per  ton 


per  truck 


per  ton 


,C  .?.  d 
- 1 0 


r.  lo.l 
-/G  -/llj 
• 1 0 


2 - 

1 .'I 

1 9 


- 2 G 


1 3 


2 - 

2 - 


0 - 
2 G 


- 8 

1 - 


.e  #. 

- 2 


- I 

- z 


- 3 

- z 

- z 


- 3 


zr, 

- 7 - 


- 5 - 

- G G 

--  5 - 


- 15 
1 - 

- 15 

- 18 


- 10 
- 10 


- 15  - 


-13 


2 9 


- 15 

I - 

- 15 

- 18 


- 10 

- II 


- 9 

- II 


- 15 


- 3 


- z 

- z 

- z 


Sjiccial  local  rates  to  specilied  stations  are  not  shown  in  the  above  tabl 


1899.] 

IS  of  Goods  Carried. 


of  Australasian  Railways. 
Year  1896. 


Ill 


Miles. 


% 

40. 

50. 

75. 

100. 

150. 

200. 

300. 

400. 

500. 

s. 

d 

£ s. 

d 

£ 

£ 

s. 

£ 

s. 

d 

£ 

: .y. 

d. 

£ s. 

d 

. £ 

5 s. 

d. 

£ s.  d. 

. £ 

y. 

3 

1 

- 4 

- 

- 

4 10 

- 

6 

3 

- 

8 

2 

- 

1 1 

- 

- 13 

1 

16 

X I 

1-1 

I 

3 

1 

2 

- 

- 2 

6 

- 

3 

- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

, 1 

8 

- 2 

I 

- 

2 

8 

— 

— 

— 

— 

'2 

9 

- 3 

6 

- 

4 

3 

- 

6 

3 

- 

8 

4 

- 

1 1 

8 

- 15 

- 

I 

I 

8 

18  4 

— 

4 10 

- 6 

I 

- 

7 

4 

- 

9 

5 

- 

11 

6 

- 

H 

1 1 

7 

- 17 

9 

I 

4 

_ 

110  3 

I 

16 

6 

2 11 

- 3 

9 

- 

4 

7 

- 

6 

8 

- 

8 

9 

- 

1 1 

- 15 

- 

- 

19 

2 

13  4 

I 

7 

6 

3 

9 

- 4 

7 

- 

5 

5 

- 

6 

1 1 

- 

7 

11 

- 

10 

- 

- 12 

1 

- 

16 

3 

10  5 

I 

4 

7 

5 

- 

- 6 

4 

- 

7 

8 

- 

9 

4 

- 

10 

2 

- 

1 1 

] 0 

- 14 

2 

- 

19 

3 

14  3 

I 

9 

3 

3 

1 

- 4 

_ 

- 

4 10 

_ 

6 

3 

_ 

8 

2 

_ 

1 1 

_ 

- 13 

1 

_ 

16 

1 1 

1-1 

I 

3 

I 

— 

- 4 

- 

- 

5 

- 

- 

7 

6 

- 

10 

- 

- 

15 

- 

1 - 

_ 

I 

10 

_ 

2 



3 

- 

- 3 

6 

- 

4 

3 

- 

6 

3 

- 

8 

4 

- 

1 1 

8 

- 15 

- 

I 

I 

8 

18  4 

— 

4 

10 

- 6 

I 

- 

7 

4 

- 

9 

5 

- 

11 

6 

- 

14 

7 

- 17 

9 

I 

4 

- 

110  3 

16 

6 

9 

6 

- 12 

- 

- 

14 

6 

I 

- 

9 

1 

7 

- 

I 

18 

6 

2 9 

11 

3 

8 

8 

4 3 3 

4 

17 

10 

5 

- 

- 6 

3 

- 

7 

6 

- 

10 

8 

- 

13 

9 

- 

17 

1 1 

1 2 

11 

I 

8 

4 

114  7 

2 

- 

IC 

1 

8 

- I 

1 1 

- 

2 

2 

- 

2 

1 1 

- 

3 

2 

- 

3 

8 

- 4 

2 

_ 

6 

_ 

- 8 1 

10 

2 

2 

6 

->  2 

1 1 

- 

3 

3 

- 

4 

5 

- 

4 

9 

- 

5 

6 

- 6 

3 

- 

9 

- 

-12  1 

- 

15 

3 

6. 

iS 

)7. 

105. 

120. 

150. 

20. 

1. 

249- 

301.  4 

.06. 

50d. 

• 11  4 

15  3 

l 8 1 13  11 

1 17  10 

2 

5 5 

2 18  - 

-347 

3 12  2 4 

— 

4 ■ 

— 

. 1 A '7 

1 12  6 

3 

- 10  2 3 

9 

2 

8 11 

2 

18  11 

3 14  11 

.444 

4 15  1 5 

— 

5 • 

- 13 

6 

- 

16 

6 

I 

4 

. 6 

lOI. 

1 1 6&1  13 

196. 

2 8 6 

at 

295. 

• 2 19  - 

9 

6 

- 12 

- 

- 

14 

6 

I 

- 

9 

1 

7 

- 

I 

18 

6 

2 9 

1 

3 

8 

8 

4 3 3 

4 

17 

10 

.3 

3 

- 17 

- 

1 

- 

9 

1 

10 

2 

1 

19 

6 

2 

i6 

9 

3 13 

11 

5 

2 

- 

6 311 

7 

5 

9 

.4 

7 

- 19 

2 

1 

3 

4 

1 

1 1 

3 

1 17 

1 

2 

2 

1 

2 7 

1 

2 

17 

1 1 

3 8 4 

3 

18 

9 

- 

I 6 

8 

1 

13 

4 

2 

lO 

_ 

3 

3 

4 

4 

2 

I 

4 18 

9 

6 

7 

1 1 

717  1 

9 

6 

3 

'3 

6 

1 10 

6 

1 

18 

- 

2 

15 

6 

3 

13 

6 

4 

6 

- 

5 13 

- 

8 

8 

6 

11  4 - 



.8 

1 

I 3 

4 

1 

9 

- 

2 

2 

I 

2 

15 

7 

3 

5 

- 

4 5 

3 

6 

6 

10 

8 8 6 



1 

4 

1 7 

8 

1 

14 

5 

2 

10 

2 

3 

6 

4 

3 

17 

7 

5 1 

11 

7 

II 

10 

10  110 

— 

5 

6 

I - 

- 

1 

5 

- 

I 

17 

- 

2 

8 

6 

3 

I 

- 

4 _ 

6 

6 

- 

- 

719  6 

— 

7 

6 

I 3 

4 

1 

9 

2 

2 

I 

8 

2 

14 

2 

3 

15 

- 

4 11 

8 

5 

16 

8 

7 18 

8 

6 

8 

3 

- 

- 16 

6 

1 

- 

6 

I 

10 

6 

2 

- 

- 

2 

16 

6 

3 13 

6 

5 

I 

- 

6 3 6 

7 

5 

6 

.4 

6 

- 18 

6 

1 

2 

- 

1 1 

6 

2 

1 

- 

2 

15 

6 

3 10 

- 

4 

1 1 

- 

5 7 6 

6 

4 

- 

- 

- 

I 5 

1 

1 

1 

10 

- 

2 

8 

2 

10 

- 

3 

2 

6 

3 13 

9 

4 

18 

9 

6 3 9 

7 

8 

9 

3 

1 

- 4 

- 

- 

4 

10 

- 

6 

3 

- 

8 

2 

- 

n 

- 

- 13 

1 

- 

16 

1 1 

1-1 

1 

3 

I 

5 

6 

- 6 

8 

- 

8 

3 

- 

11 

7 

- 

14  11 

- 

19 

6 

1 4 

1 

I 

10 

1 1 

117  10 

2 

6 

- 3 

4 

- 

4 

2 

- 

5 

9 

- 

7 

4 

- 

9 • 

1 1 

- 12 

6 

- 

17 

9 

1 211 

I 

8 

2 

2 11 

- 3 

9 

- 

4 

7 

- 

6 

8 

- 

8 

9 

- 

II  ] 

[ I 

- 15 

- 

- 

19 

13  4 

I 

7 

6 

h.3 

9 

- 4 

7 

- 

5 

5 

- 

6 

1 1 

- 

7 11 

- 

10 

- 

- 12 

1 

- 

16 

3 

1-5 

I 

4 

7 

J rates  quoted  for  Soutli  Australia  are  those  for  February,  1897. 


IIOWK LL — Comparalive  Stalistirs 


I 

i 


]-2 


[Mar. 


Table  III. — Victorian  Railway!*. 


Loan  Act. 

Loans  Issued  for 
llnihvays. 

Net  Aino»mt 

Realised. 

Rate. 

Interest  for 

Yt  nr. 

£ 

£ 

IVr  cut. 

£ 

42  Yict., 

No.  G08 

445^)574 

— 

4i 

— 

439 

88,873 

- 

4 

— 

37 

?> 

4G8 

1,450,000 

1 

4 

~ 

39 

3) 

531 

— 

4 

— 

45 

33 

717 

2,769,0:6 

1 

4 

— 

4G 

33 

739 

Z,0-)0,C0C 

1 

4 

— 

4G 

35 

711 

107,600 

1 

4 

— 

47 

33 

7G0 

3.758,788 

— 

4 

— 

43 

33 

805 

3.-5i.i7i 

1 

4 

— 

49 

845 

4,500,000 

— 

I 4 

— 

51 

n 

9G3 

130,000 

— 

I 4 

— 

53 

33 

1,015 

500,000 

— 

1 4 

— 

57 

33 

1,341 

1 50,000 

— 

! 4 

— 

5G 

» 

1,287 

2,107,000 

— 

! 4 

— 

5G 

33 

1,296 

464,672 

— 

; 4 

— 

.58 

33 

1,3G9 

153.9C0 

— 

; 4 

— 

52 

33 

989  

2,673,913 

— 

i 

3a 

— 

.53 

33 

1,032 

3,150,000 

— 

32 

— 

54 

33 

1,19G 

2,226,087 

— 

3l 

— 

55 

33 

1,217 

1,666,667 

— 

33 

— 

42 

” 

617 

31,900 

— 

5 

— 

T.)tal 

36,732,845 

36,184,148 

— 

1,459,743* 

*■  Ir.clutling  expenses  in  payment  of  interest. 


N um- 

ber. 

18 

18 

27 

9 

10 

2 

20 

2 

23 

1 

15 

25 

28 

25 

2 

18 

24 

47 

57 

77 

129 

159 

189 

227 

272 

297 

334 

362 

391 

449 

491 

549 

553 

611 


of  Australasian  Hallways. 

E IV. — South  Australian  Railways. 


113 


Loans  Issued 

for 

Railways. 

Net  Amount 

Realised. 
•Railway  Loans. 

Rate. 

Finally 
Paid-olT  by 
Treasury. 

Interest  for 
Year  on 
Outstanding 
Loans. 

£ 

£ 

Per  cnt. 

£ 

£ 

150,000 

150,000 

6 

250,000 

250,000 

6 

[>504,100 

36,000 

36,000 

6 

1 

68,100 

73,000 

6 

J 

76,800 

80,000 

6 

76,800 

— 

36,800 

40,000 

6 

36,800 

— 

1 2,600 

13,500 

6 

12,600 

— 

3o,3o0 

6 

33,500 

— 

1 2,800 

14,000 

6 

12,800 

— 

4-5,300 

48,000 

6 

45,300 

— 

18,600 

20,000 

6 

18,600 

— 

73,400 

77,000 

6 

21,100 

— 

500,000 

533,252 

6 

120,000 

— 

160,000 

147,918 

4 

— 

— 

450,000 

403,567 

4 

— 

— 

82,000 

76,238 

4 

— 

— 

200,000 

188,077 

4 

— 

— 

2,188,500 

2,053,983 

4 

— 

— 

65,418 

58,005 

4 

— 

— 

416,641 

387,288 

4 

— ■ 

— 

1,800,186 

1,673,358 

4 

— 

— 

234.830 

234,830 

4 

— 

— 

88,300 

88,300 

4 

— 

— 

631.594 

630,073 

4 

_ j 

— 

1,071,600 

1,055,041 

4 



— 

635.000 

633,234 

4 

_ 1 

— 

1,060,400 

1,053,283 

4 

— 

553,900 

545,127 

4 

■— 

1 7,000 

17,000 

4 

— 

— 

354.569 

348,155 

— 

— 

817,620 

756,045 

— 

— 

245.016 

237,210 

3i 

— 

— 

238,714 

238,598 

4. 11,  3 

— 

— 

100,470 

96,600 

3 

— 

— 

12,725.658 

12,292,035 

— 

— 

— 

259.865 

259,865 

— 

— 

— 

12,465.793 

12,032,170 

— 

881,600 

468,375 

1. 


1 


114  Howell — Comparative  Statistics  of  Australasian  Railways.  [Mar 


Table  V. — Queensland  Railways.  Statement  showing  Total  Loans 
Issued;  Railway  Proportion  of  sarrie ; Net  Amount  Realised;  Rate 
and  Amount  of  Interest. 


[Compiled  from  particulars  kinrlly  8upj)licd  by  tlio  Under  Secretary 
to  the  'rrensury.] 


Year  Issued. 

Total  Lo;  ns 

Issued. 

Loans  Issued 
for 

Railways. 

Net  Amount 
Realised, 
Railway 
Proportion. 

I 

Rate. 

nterest. 

Annual  Amount. 

1872 

£ 

1,466,500 

£ 1 

086,000  ' 

£ 

601, 98Z 

Per  ent. 

4 

•C 

75'. 

1 ,695,300 

706,000  1 

694,56 1 

4 

— 

70 

740,700 

126,100  I 

> 13.7^9 

4 

— 

77 

i,3Zi,ooo 

751,600  i 

589,367 

4 

— 

78 

^ 1,184,800 

820,000 

I 723748 

4 

— 

79 

3,053,000 

2,024,100 

! 1,883,566 

4 

— 

’81 

1,089,500 

330,400 

321,985 

4 

— 

’82 

z, 643, 500 

1,822,000 

847,000 

1 1,759,440 

4 

— 

’84. 

1 ,439,000 

' 8z6,i67 

4 

— 

'84  No.  2.... 

6,750,000 

4,677,967 

, 4,557,014 

4 

— 

’84  „ 

3,z30,ooo 

2,239,033 

1 -,104,055 

3^ 

— 

’89 

' 1,554,834 

931,834 

895,056 

3i 

— 

’90 

1 3,704,800 

2,250,450 

1 1,969,933 

— 

’94 

' z, 000, 000 

346,508 

345,567 

3." 

— 

Total  .... 

~ 

18,631,052 

17,496,170 

— 

711,203 

Table  YI. — West  xiustralia  Railways. 


[Compiled  from  particulars  kindly  supplied  by  the  Under  Secretary  for 
Railways  and  Works.] 


Year  Issued.  | 

Loans  Issued 
' for 

Net  Amount 
Realised 
for  Railways. 

Interest. 

Railways. 

(Proportion.) 

Rate. 

Annual  Amount. 

£ 

£ 

Per  cut. 

£ 

1872 

— 

1,675 

1,675 

6 

— 

73 

j _ 

89,000 

88,061 

5 

— 

’75.. 

1 — 

26,060 

z6,ooo 

5 

— 

78 

! — 

141,751 

137,144 

— 

’81 

i — 

100,047 

97,046 

4 

— 

’82 

— 

200,557 

194,139 

4 

— 

’84 

— 

272,586 

z64,ooo 

4 

— 

’88 

— 

4,841 

5,233 

4 

— 

’91 

— 

908,284 

891,754 

4 

— 

’93 

— 

364,191 

371,475 

4 

— 

’94 

— 

90,246 

90,941 

4 

— 

Total  .... 

2,199,238 

1 z,  1 6 7,468 

— 

89.86Z 

PRICE  HOWELL. 


PlcuLe  I. 


RELATION  OF  NET  EARNINGS  TO  CAPITAL. 


CAPITAL THICK  LINES. 

NET  EARNINGS THIN  LINES. 


Ic  %>a3  XitL., 
S'  M^rtiu^  LiuaW.C. 


1 


Plate  U. 


^ RELATION  OF  EXPENDITURE  TO  REVENUE. 


YEAR. 


To  preserye  the  comparvsorv,  the  half  years  of  the  foUrninp  have  been  doubled,  viz 
(Vic.)  W71  & JSdd.  (S.A)  1S7S.  (Q.)  mS. 


PLate  m. 


YEAR  1896. 

RELATIVE  VARIATION  OF  WORKING  EXPENSES  & NET  EARNINGS 
IN  PROPORTION  TO 
GROSS  EARNINGS. 


PER-CENT  OF  GROSS  EARNINGS. 


&r  Lithj 
b M^rlmo  laueXC, 


Plate  IV. 


YEAR  1896. 

RELATIVE  VARIATION  OF  WORKING  EXPENSES  & NET  EARNINGS 
IN  PROPORTION  TO 
TRAIN  MILES. 


COST  IN  pence  per  TRAIN  MILE. 


TTiTTISJH  &r  li-tk. 

Marlmc  LaneXC. 


PJat^  r 


Pl<ite  .YJ . 


Hate 

per 

D A 1 F 

R Y PROD 

U C E . 

Ml  l_  E S . 

n 

t4jmy 

10^°3<^°5O  75  lOO  160  200  300  400  BOO 

7 

6‘ 

\ 

I 

5 

I 

I 

3 

/ 

••;>  V- 

2 

/ 

•/ 

1 

. 

/ 

// 

‘ / 

' // 

y 

0 

f 

/ 

S/d 

GOf- 

sol- 

1 

r I M B E R 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

h'y 

07 

wj- 

aoj- 

20l- 

'lOj- 

0 

■ 

r-/ 

N./ 

'•z 

V / 

?-z' 

A 

<o/ 

O/ 

r/' 

Y' 

q,oN 

o 

o/ 

/ 

_...[ 

..•■•■■"  i 

\ - 

- . F S 

/' 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

••••  — f 

^ — 



/' 

> 

/ 

,, 

/ 

KSO»i  I.  SOKS,  L'TH.  S’ 


PW  VII 


Pta^r  pm 


HAPRI50N  & SONS.  LfTH.  ST  MARTINS  LANE.W.C. 


Plat4>.  JX 


HAPP'SON  i SONS.  LITH.  maRTjnS  LAN.E.V/.C. 


BRISBANE. 


Pkifrl. 


ti 


:S30  3S0  360  370  3SO  390  noZcS. 


2,000 
1,000  Ft 
Sea,  lev  eh. 


330  34e)  3.50  360  370  330  330  4V0  0-10  4^20  ‘^30  ^30  ^60  4-70  430  430  600  miZes 


A,ocoFt 

3 000  Ff' 

1 

IB 

1 

• 

■ 

Ik. 

^P 

PP 

2 OOO  F^' 

1 

* 

• 

** 

M 

tel 

te^ 

|te 

<Ky.^ 

li 

1,000 FF 

SeaAfVt 

1 

* 

• 

* 

* 

BP 

i 

ste 

i 

^ 1 

PROFILE  OF  GRADIENTS.  ADELAIDE  TO  BRISBANE 


l^laJr  K 


o »’  -jy  a<’  ■*<'  so eo  jo  so  oo  wc  no  i zo  i;w  /sv  mo  170  ibo  mo  200  nulfs 


SOUTH  AUSTRAUAN  RY 

^ L 

//VO 

J, 000  ft 

.V«n  Ici-el 

ADELAIDE  TO  SERVICETON. 

SCO  miles 
ihucoff 
ff 


1899.] 


115 


Discussion  on  Mk.  Price  Howell’s  Paper. 

Mr.  H.  Moncreiff  Paul  said  he  could  have  wished  that 
Mr.  Howell  had  been  present  to  read  his  own  paper,  as  there  was 
always  a little  delicacy  in  discussing  a paper  in  the  absence  of  the 
writer.  This  paper  was  full  of  interest,  and  worthy  of  much 
study,  though  perhaps  it  would  have  been  better  if,  at  the 
conclusion,  the  author  had  been  able  to  make  some  sort  of 
summary  and  let  his  readers  know  what  results  he  had  arrived 
at  from  the  statistics  he  had  so  exhaustively  worked  out.  There 
could  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  importance  of  Australian  railways. 
In  a new  country  facility  of  transit  was  essential,  not  only  for 
people,  but  much  more  for  the  products  of  the  country,  otherwise 
many  so  termed  by-products  would  certainly  lie  waste,  because 
they  could  not  be  economically  transported  to  market.  They  were 
also  the  means  of  connecting  various  colonies  together  for  strategic 
and  other  purposes.  These  Australasian  colonies  had  manifestly 
not  co-operated  in  the  matter  of  railway  construction.  Some  had 
gone  ahead  of  others  in  the  matter  of  construction  of  lines  of 
railway  and  development  of  country.  There  was  an  additional 
reason  why  railway  construction  should  be  developed  in  those 
colonies  in  view  of  the  desire  now  so  generally  expressed  for 
intercolonial  federation.  For  strategic  purposes  therefore  it  was 
most  desirable  that  the  main  lines  of  Australian  railwajs  east  and 
west  and  north  and  south  should  be  developed  as  quickly  as  possible. 
That  meant  that  colonies  would  be  connected  together,  and  in 
point  of  fact,  that  railway  connection  would  pave  the  way  for 
complete  federation  later  on.  The  absence  of  a combined  plan  in 
the  design  of  their  railways  was  manifest  from  the  want  of 
uniformity  in  gauge,  which  ran  from  5 feet  3 inches  to  3 feet 
6 inches.  This  w^as  detrimental,  because  one  could  not  travel  from 
west  to  east  without  changing  carriages.  With  regard  to  going 
from  north  to  south  that  difficulty  had  to  a certain  extent  been 
obviated,  but  much  still  remained  to  be  done  before  the  railw^ay 
system  throughout  these  colonies,  setting  aside  New  Zealand  and 
Tasmania,  would  be  what  it  ought  to  be.  One  could  certainly 
travel  from  Adelaide  to  Melbourne  without  change  of  carriage  on 
an  uniform  gauge  of  5 feet  3 inches,  but  when  one  went  from 
Melbourne  to  Sydney  there  was  a break  of  gauge  at  Albury,  which 
for  military  purposes  would  be  a serious  disadvantage.  He  fancied 
that  heavy  lines  had  been  laid  down  in  certain  places  where  lighter 
lines  would  have  sufficed,  and  hence  a greater  cost  in  construction 
had  been  incurred  than  was  necessary.  But  of  course  it  was  easy 
to  be  wise  after  the  event.  Examining  the  cost  per  mile  of  rail- 
ways in  Australasia  as  a whole,  including  Tasmania  and  New 
Zealand,  it  was  9,617/.,  New  South  Wales  standing  at  14,157/.  and 
Victoria  at  12,3 17/.  per  mile,  and  those  two  colonies  represented  the 

i2 


IIG 


Discussion 


[Mar. 

lar^^est  portion  of  the  existing  railway  system.  If  one  looked  to 
other  countries  in  a somewhat  similar  position,  one  found  that  ii» 
Argentina  the  cost  was  10,632/.,  and  in  Canada  11.522/.  per  mile, 
lliit  the  salient  feature  in  connection  with  Australasian  railways 
was  that  they  were  not  self-supporting.  The  gross  eai-nings  for 
1896-97  might  be  taken  in  round  numbers  over  the  colonies  at 
10,200,000/.,  while  the  working  expenses  were  say  6,000,000/., 
leaving  the  net  earnings  4,200,000/.  Now  the  money  which  had 
been  borrowed  and  applied  to  the  making  of  railways  in  tho.se 
colonies  might  be  taken  in  round  numbers  at  1 3 5,000,000/.,  and  the 
rate  of  interest  payable  upon  it  at  approximately  4 per  cent.  The 
returns  of  the  railways  were  but  3^  per  cent.,  and  therefore  there 
was  an  annual  average  loss  of  f percent,  on  the  capital  expended. 
So  that  the  theory  held  by  the  various  Governments  that  their 
railways  should  be  self-supporting  had  not  been  carried  out. 
There  w^as  a further  difficulty  in  connection  with  these  railw^ays. 
The  statistics  of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  in  the  Commis- 
sioners’ report  on  railways,  showed  that  there  was  spent  on  the  con- 
struction of  non-paying  branches  in  Victoria  1 4,000,000/.,  and  in 
New  South  Wales  8,500,000/. ; the  revenue  of  the.se  branches  being 
respectively  529,500/.  and  313,800/.,  whilst  their  working  expenses 
were  363,700/.  and  275,000/.  The  annual  interest  payable  by  the 
former  was  515,000/.,  and  by  the  latter  338,800/.  leaving  a net  loss 
in  the  former  case  of  349,200/.,  and  in  the  latter  of  300,000/.  Lines 
were  sometimes  built  at  public  expense  for  the  benefit  practically 
of  local  landowners  and  speculators,  who,  in  order  to  enhance  the 
value  of  their  property  through  the  medium  of  powerful  friends, 
and  by  the  exertion  of  special  influences,  succeeded  in  securing  the 
development  of  railway  lines  over  the  lands  owned  by  them.  Such 
lines  being  constructed  in  districts  where  the  traffic  was  inadequate,, 
did  not  pay,  and  the  finances  of  the  colonies  in  consequence 
suffeied.  The  plan  originally  adopted  should  have  been  to  take 
care  of  your  trunk  lines  first,  and  leave  the  branches  till  later  on. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  cost  of  construction  of  railw^ays 
depended  very  much  upon  the  time  at  which  the  work  was 
executed,  because  the  cost  of  materials  and  of  labour  varied. 
When  the  Australasian  colonies  in  past  years  got  their  money  very 
easily  from  John  Bull,  that  money  was  at  once  sunk  in  railway 
plant  and  construction  without  regard  to  the  market  conditions: 
prevailing  at  the  time.  Wiser  counsels  had  prevailed  of  late  years, 
and  the  cost  in  Western  Australia  was  very  much  less  per  mile 
than  in  the  other  colonies  he  had  mentioned.  In  one  part  of  the 
paper  it  was  remarked  that  Victoria  carried  a good  deal  of  N’ew 
South  Wales’  produce,  taking  it  to  Melbourne  instead  of  ta 
Sydney.  This  was  not  due  solely  to  the  proximity  of  the  former 
to  the  Murray  Eiver,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Howell.  On  this  point  a 
little  more  explanation  should  be  given.  There  was  a certain 
portion  of  New  South  Wales  situated  to  the  north  of  the  Murray, 
and  called  Riverina.  This  district  might  be  said  to  be  one  of  the 
best  jewels  in  her  crown,  but  it  was  very  much  developed  by 
Victoi-ian  men,  wdio,  from  some  change  in  the  Victorian  land  laovs- 
thirty-five  to  forty  years  ago,  were,  so  to  say,  driven  across  the 


on  Mr.  Frice  IloicelVs  Paper. 


117 


1899.] 


Murray  and  so  developed  Riverina.  Their  purse-strings  were, 
however, held  in  Victoria,  and  therefore  their  produce  v;ent  thither. 
Victoria  at  that  time  had  tapped  the  Murray  River  by  two  railway 
systems  to  the  north  at  Echuca,  and  to  the  north-east  at  Albury. 
Consequently  those  Victorians  who  went  to  live  in  Riverina  had 
the  opportunity  of  carting  their  wool  to  the  Murray  at  Echuca  and 
Albury,  whence  it  was  carried  by  the  Victorian  railways  to 
Melbourne  for  sale  or  shipment,  It  was  some  time  before  New 
South  Wales  awoke  to  this  fact,  and  she  then  found  that  a great 
•deal  of  the  traffic  which  might  have  been  attracted  to  Sydney  was 
diverted  to  Melbourne.  The  former  has  found  it  to  be  very 
difficult  to  regain  the  trade  thus  lost,  and  although  the  difference 
in  mileage  between  Riverina  and  Sydney  and  Riverina  and 
Melbourne  was  inconsiderable,  Victoria,  being  first  in  the  field 
with  her  railways,  has,  as  regards  Riverina,  continued  to  reap  the 
•benefit  of  her  diligence. 

Mr.  W.  M.  Ac  WORTH  said  there  was  one  thing  for  which  they 
might  all  be  grateful  to  the  Australian  colonies,  and  that  was  the 
excellence  of  the  statistics  that  the  colonial  railways  gave,  as 
•compared  with  the  exceedingly  jejune  materials  for  knowing  what 
their  railways  did  which  they  had  in  England.  Of  course  there 
was  a good  deal  more  one  would  like  to  get.  Some  of  the 
railways  gave  ton-mile  statistics,  and  others  did  not,  and  it  was 
almost  impossible  to  compare  one  Hue  with  another  without  these 
figures.  Rut  at  least  all  the  different  colonies  published  graphic 
statistics,  showing  year  by  year  the  increase  or  decrease  in  each 
individual  important  class  of  traffic ; first  and  second  class 
passenger  traffic,  v/ool  traffic,  hay,  straw,  and  so  forth,  which 
brought  out  the  facts  in  a way  that  they  never  got  in  this  country. 
The  last  speaker  referred  to  the  question  of  gauge,  and  he  wished 
the  paper  had  mentioned  how  that  question  stood  at  the  present 
moment.  He  noticed  in  a recent  report  of  New  South  Wales, 
that  the  Railway  Commissioners  of  that  colony  had  hopes  of 
getting  a uniform  gauge  all  over  Australia  in  the  near  future.  Of 
course  if  there  were  a uniform  gauge  it  would  be  that  of  New 
Routh  Wales,  so  perhaps  they  were  naturally  a little  sanguine 
upon  the  subject.  Another  point  on  which  he  wished  something 
had  been  said,  as  it  was  more  important  than  any  other  to  the 
English  people,  was  the  method  of  management.  Of  course  it  was 
not  strictly  statistical,  but  it  would  not  have  been  foreign  to  the 
scope  of  the  paper  if  they  had  had  some  account  of  the  compara- 
tive success  or  failure  of  the  different  attempts  that  the  Australian 
railways  had  made  to  keep  the  politicians,  so  to  speak,  at  arm’s 
length.  It  always  seemed  to  him  that  the  amount  of  independent 
power  that  the  Commissioners  were  allowed,  and  the  extent  and 
methods  of  the  limitations  enforced  or  attempted  to  restrain  or 
prevent  the  day-to-day  interference  by  members  of  the  Legislature 
for  political  ends  with  railway  management,  was  the  most 
interesting  thing  in  connectien  with  the  Australian  railways.  It 
interested  him  very  much  to  read  the  passage  in  which  the  author 
said  he  could  not  fail  to  recognise  the  efficient  manner  in  which 


118 


Ducussion 


[ M ar. 


tlic  colonial  railways  were  condnctcd.  No  one  would  wisli  to 
cliallcng’e  that  statement  put  in  that  broad  shape;  and  he  fjuite 
agreed  with  Mr.  Price  Howell  that  it  was  im[)OH8ihle  to  com))are 
Australian  railways  with  the  railways  of  the  United  Stjites  as  a 
whole,  hut  he  thought  it  would  be  very  interesting,  and  not  with- 
out value,  to  compare  the  Australian  railways  with  a group  of 
railways  in  the  United  States  with  which  they  were  fairly 
comparable.  He  would  take  the  group  of  railways  which  were 
classed  in  “ Ifoore’s  Manual”  as  the  south-western  group, 
including  the  States  of  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Texas,  Kansas,  Colo- 
rado, New  Mexico,  and  the  Indian  and  Oklahoma  territories,  roughly 
speaking,  the  country  west  of  the  Missouri  and  south  of  Henver, 
down  to  the  Mexican  frontier,  but  excluding  California.  As  far 
as  one  could  judge,  that  district  was  fairly  comparable  in  various 
ways  with  Australia.  There  was  a very  sparse  population,  for 
there  was  only  one  town  in  it  at  all  as  important  as  eitlier 
Melbourne  or  Sydney,  namely,  St.  Louis,  which  was  situated  on 
the  eastern  border  of  the  district,  and  had  a population  of  about 
70,000.  Now  he  found  that  Australia  had  12,000  miles  of  rail- 
ways, whilst  this  district,  with  a pastoral  population  and  an  area 
of  only  three-quarters  of  a million  of  square  miles,  as  against  four 
times  that  in  Australia,  had  35,000  miles.  Eoughly,  the  population 
was  about  the  same,  five  millions  in  America  as  against  four  and  a 
quarter  millions  in  Australia.  Yet  there  was  three  times  the  rail- 
way mileage  in  America.  With  regard  to  the  relative  economy  with 
which  the  lines  were  constructed,  the  Australian  lines  were  more 
than  half  narrow  gauge  and  yet  cost  9,500/.  a mile ; whereas  the 
lines  in  the  Texas  and  Kansas  district  had  cost  nominally  1 1,000/. 
a mile,  but  were  all  normal  gauge.  But  this  11,000/.  a mile  was 
only  the  nominal  capital.  It  was  generally  admitted  that  the  half 
of  the  capital,  which  was  represented  by  bonds,  say,  6,000/.  a mile, 
was  quite  as  much  as  those  lines  actually  did  cost  to  construct. 
vSo  that  the  Australian  railways  did  not  seem  to  show  that  economy 
in  construction  cost  which  might  naturally  have  been  expected  to 
result  from  their  money  being  raised  on  the  creditof  the  Government. 
It  might  be  thought  that  the  construction  of  the  American  lines 
had  been  much  less  substantial.  But  that  these  railways  had 
been  fairly  efficiently  constructed  seemed  to  be  vouched  by  the 
fact  that  they  had  proved  capable  of  carrying  a vastly  greater 
traffic  than  the  Australasian  lines.  The  Australasian  lines  carried 
about  ten  million  tons,  while  this  group  of  American  lines  carried 
forty  millions,  and  of  course  there  could  be  no  question  that  the 
distances  carried  in  Kansas,  Texas,  and  Colorado  would  be  on  the 
average  much  greater,  so  that  there  was  more  than  four  times  the 
actual  amount  of  work  done.  He  had  not  the  passenger  figures, 
but  probably  they  would  be  considerably  bigger  in  Australia, 
because  around  Melbourne  and  Sydney  there  was  a considerable 
suburban  traffic,  which  ran  up  the  number  of  individual  passen- 
gers. The  other  point  on  which  a comparison  would  be  useful 
was  that  of  the  rates.  He  thought  there  was  no  question  that  the 
Americans  carried  a great  deal  cheaper  than  the  Australians. 
Some  of  the  Australian  figures  quoted  in  the  paper  seemed  extra- 


119 


1899.]  on  Mr.  Price  HowelVs  Paper. 

ordinarily  high  judged  by  European  standards.  At  any  rate,  the 
rates  could  not  be  claimed  to  be  exceedingly  low,  whereas  the 
rates  in  the  American  south-west  group,  considering  that  they 
were  carrying  for  a comparatively  sparse  population,  were  exceed- 
ingly low.  The  average  rate  for  passengers  was  2’34  cents,  or  less 
than  ijd.,  which  was  probably  lower,  and  the  average  freight  rate 
was  1*15  cents,  or  a little  over  a halfpenny,  which  was  undoubtedly 
much  lower  than  the  average  rates  of  the  Australian  colonies.  Of 
course  no  comparison  went  entirely  on  all  fours,  but  on  the  whole 
the  evidence  seemed  to  him  to  indicate  very  distinctly  that, 
granting  the  State  railways  of  the  Australian  colonies  to  be 
efficiently  conducted,  the  private  railways  of  America  must  be 
vastly  more  efficiently  conducted. 

Mr.  P.  DE  Jersey  GtRUT  said  he  should  like  to  ask  whether  the- 
last  speaker  had  taken  into  account  the  net  returns  of  interest  on 
capital  made  by  the  group  of  American  railways  to  which  he 
referred,  because  that  was  a very  important  consideration.  Many 
of  the  American  railway  companies  practically  went  out  of 
existence  after  a time  ; they  went  into  the  hands  of  a receiver,  and 
the  capital  invested  in  them  partly  or  wholly  disappeared.  A 
comparison  could  hardly  be  fairly  made  between  them  and 
Australasian  railways,  which  were  in  the  hands  of  Governments, 
and  had  to  be  carried  on  whether  they  paid  or  not,  while  the 
capital  invested  in  them  never  disappeared  from  the  debtor  side  of 
the  national  balance  sheet.  There  was  another  point  which  he 
had  never  seen  treated  by  writers  on  this  side,  in  connection  with 
one  very  important  aspect  of  Australasian  railways,  and  that  was 
that  there  were  in  those  countries  enormous  Crown  estates.  It 
was  a case  where  the  landlord,  in  fact,  wished  to  improve  his 
property,  and  it  was  most  important  that  he  should  do  so,  because 
it  increased  not  only  its  saleable  value,  but  its  rental.  In  the 
Australasian  colonies  the  land  revenue  amounted  to  not  much 
short  of  five  millions  sterling  per  annum,  and  they  looked  forward 
to  its  increasing  with  the  increase  in  population.  That  was  a 
most  important  aspect  of  the  policy  of  the  Governments  in  pushing 
forward  railways,  a policy  the  avowed  object  of  which  was  to 
promote  settlement  by  increasing  the  attractiveness  of  the  land. 
The  gentleman  who  first  spoke  alluded  to  the  fact  that  a very 
considerable  number  of  branch  lines  paid  very  badly ; in  some 
cases  they  did  not  pay  their  working  expenses,  and  that  un- 
questionably was  a feature  which  suggested  adverse  criticism,  but 
at  the  same  time  it  must  be  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of 
public  policy  referred  to.  In  Queensland,  for  example,  they  had 
about  428,000,000  acres,  of  which  only  about  14,000,000  had  been 
sold.  The  vast  proportion  of  the  land  was  still  Crown  property, 
and  it  was  of  great  importance  to  the  community  as  a whole  that 
that  property  should  be  improved  and  developed.  They  were 
content,  at  least  to  some  extent,  to  make  even  a loss  on  their  I’ail- 
way  revenue,  or  at  any  rate  that  it  should  not  cover  the  expenses 
and  interest,  provided  that  their  land  revenues  not  only  made  up 
for  the  deficiency  but  a great  deal  more.  The  proprietor  of  a 


120 


iJiscussion 


[Mar. 

vast  estate  mif^lit  be  quite  content  to  make  a loss  on  liis 
department  of  communications,  provided  tliat,  tlirougli  the 
facilities  he  afforded  tliereby,  he  made  considerably  t^reater  ]irofit  on 
liis  rentals  and  sales,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  increased  traflic. 
That  was  tlie  most  important  aspect  of  the  case,  but  it  was  not 
referred  to  in  this  country  in  criticisms  on  Austi-alasian 
railways.  Again,  tlie  net  return,  after  paying  expenses,  came 
to  about  3 1 per  cent,  on  the  capital  expended.  That  was  not  a 
bad  return,  and  he  should  be  very  glad  to  know  whether  the 
group  of  American  railways  which  had  been  referred  to  returned 
3j  per  cent.,  taking  into  account'not  only  the  companies  at  present 
existing,  but  also  those  whose  capital  had  been  swept  into  the 
abyss  of  insolvency.  If  all  that  capital  were  added  to  that  which 
might  be  considered  still  to  be  live  capital,  he  should  very  much 
doubt  whether  they  returned  3|-  per  cent.  Although  it  w'as 
perfectly  true  that  the  net  returns  from  these  railways  in 
Australasia  was  3 1,  and  the  rate  of  interest  they  paid  on  their 
loans  was  nearly  4 per  cent.,  it  should  also  be  remembered  that 
the  borrowing  rate  they  were  paying  was  being  continually 
reduced.  During  the  last  week  three  Australasian  loans  had  been 
floated,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  paying  off  previous  loans  at  a 
higher  rate  of  interest,  and  these  loans  were  obtained  at  a shade 
over  3 per  cent.,  so  that,  in  fact,  a return  of  3;^  per  cent,  from  the 
railways  more  than  paid  the  interest  at  rates  at  which  they  could 
now  borrow,  and  although  the  average  rate  on  the  money  borrowed 
over  a considerable  past  period  amounted  to  nearly  4 per  cent., 
still,  as  those  old  borrowings  matured  and  were  replaced  by  loans 
at  a lower  rate,  the  railways  could  pay  their  interest.  The 
Governments  might  also  look  forward,  with  an  increase  of 
population,  to  better  returns  from  the  working,  so  that  in  the 
future  they  would  be  in  a much  more  satisfactory  position  than 
they  had  been  in  the  past. 

Sir  JuLAND  Danvers,  K.C.S.I.,  said  the  first  thing  that  struck 
him  while  hearing  the  paper  read,  was  the  want  of  uniformity  in 
the  various  accounts  rendered.  This  made  the  process  of 
examination  and  comparison  very  difficult,  and  the  writer,  while 
giving  much  useful  information  and  furnishing  facts  which  were 
interesting,  was  unable  to  draw  conclusions  which  would  be  as 
instructive  as  he  could  wish.  This  he  frankly  admitted  in  his  pajDer, 
and  it  was  to  be  regretted  that  the  railways  were  not  under  the  super- 
vision of  such  a department  as  the  Chairman  (Sir  Courtenay  Boyle) 
represented.  The  unit  necessary  for  statistical  comparisons  was 
that  derived  from  the  number  of  tons  and  passengers  carried  one 
mile,  and  their  cost.  It  was  to  be  hoped  that  Mr.  Price  Howell  would 
use  his  inffuence  to  obtain  such  returns.  If  they  w^ere  furnished 
by  all  the  different  railways,  they  would  enable  a judgment  to 
be  formed  of  the  economy  exercised  in  the  management  on 
various  systems:  Useful  comparisons  could  thus  be  made  between 
railways  in  Australia  and  with  those  in  other  countries.  They 
would  also  furnish  a safe  guide  for  remunerative  rates  and  fares. 
Average  receipts  per  mile  of  line  were  of  little  use  for  these 


1899.] 


on  Mr.  Price  IlowelVs  Paper. 


121 


purposes,  but  to  know  tbe  average  cost  and  receipts  per  ton  of 
goods  and  passengers  per  mile  was  invaluable, 

Mr.  Matthew  Macfie  said  that,  having  been  resident  for  five 
or  six  years  in  Australia,  and  having  been  at  the  head  of  one  of 
the  leading  newspapers  of  Melbourne,  he  was  brought  considerably 
into  contact  with  the  political  and  economic  bearings  of  the  rail- 
way system  of  the  Australasian  colonies.  He  particularly  admired 
not  only  the  fulness  and  accuracy  of  the  views  expressed  by  Mr. 
Moncreiff  Paul,  who  also  had  had  the  advantage  of  residence  there. 
In  one  or  two  incisive  remarks  he  seemed  to  hit  the  blot  'which 
affected  the  whole  railway  administration  in  that  country.  It  was 
obvious  from  all  that  had  been  said  in  the  paper  and  in  the  dis- 
cussion, that  the  Australasian  railways  did  not  pay,  taking  them  as 
a whole.  • He  must  say  Hew'  South  Wales  seemed  to  be  making 
progress,  at  present,  in  this  department  of  the  public  service, 
probably  in  consequence  of  having  had  for  some  years  a very 
efficient  railway  commissioner,  who  was  entitled  to  a great  deal  of 
commendation  for  the  manner  in  which  he  had  performed  his 
-duties.  Ho  serious  objection  could  be  made  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  trunk  lines  had  been  constructed  as  a rule,  whether  as 
regards  the  route  followed  or  the  cost  of  construction.  The 
great  trial  of  the  patience  of  the  Australasian  taxpayer  w^as  the 
making  and  unprofitable  working  of  many  of  the  branch  lines. 
He  was  soiry  to  be  obliged  to  say,  as  the  result  of  his  own  obser- 
vations, speaking  as  charitably  as  he  could,  that  during  his  stay  in 
Victoria,  the  making  of  branch  lines  in  that  colony  was  very 
largely  influenced  by  political  considerations.  The  course  of 
■events  w’as  generally  this : The  representatives  in  Parliament 
naturally  desired  to  conciliate  their  constituents  by  conferring 
benefits  upon  them  at  the  cost  of  the  State,  and  usually  the 
making  of  branch  railways  was  one  of  the  conditions  upon  which 
re-election  of  members  of  Parliament  was  guaranteed  and  the 
party  in  oflBce  kept  in  power.  Influence  was  brought  to  bear  on 
the  Colonial  Treasurer  of  Victoria,  by  parliamentary  supporters  of 
the  Government,  to  grant  the  requests  of  their  constituencies. 
When  Mr.  Gillies  filled  that  office  in  1892  he  was  perpetually 
-embarrassed  by  the  approaches  of  suburban  members,  and  at  last 
was  brought  to  a stand  before  the  House  in  consequence  of  the 
numerous  demands  made  by  rural  representatives  for  branch 
lines.  One  night  he  astonished  the  House  by  saying  that  the 
appeals  which  had  been  made  to  him,  within  a few  months,  would 
bring  the  total  new  loans  required  to  build  the  railways  solicited 
up  to  2 2,ooo,oooZ.  Following  upon  this  announcement  he  deter- 
mined to  take  no  further  steps  in  the  matter  until  a Committee  of 
inquiry  had  been  appointed  by  the  House  to  go  into  the  whole 
question.  That  Committee  was  appointed,  and  conducted  its 
labours  for  a series  of  months.  The  result  of  the  investigation 
was  the  discovery  made  by  the  Committee  that  a large  number 
of  railways  had  been  made  in  the  colony  which  could  not  by  any 
possibility  pay  until  most  of  the  honourable  gentlemen  then  in 
Parliament  were  in  their  graves.  The  money  with  which  so 


122 


l)iscussio7i 


[Mar. 


many  nnremuncralivc  lines  'vverc  constructed  liad  l)C(  rj  obtained 
between  1885  and  1889,  wlicn  the  colonics  were  in  hi;^di  credit  in 
this  country,  and  the  local  banks  were  overloaded  with  def)Osits 
on  Government  account — the  proceeds  of  British  loans — which 
were  waiting  to  be  em])loyed  in  making  tliese  lines.  Several  local 
railways  of  the  most  superfluous  cliaracter  were  made  around 
Melbourne,  apart  from  the  rural  districts,  and  that  accounted  to  a 
very  large  extent  for  the  preposterous  deficiencies  in  the  railway 
income  from  year  to  year  ever  since.  No  doubt,  as  had  been 
stated,  there  had  been,  in  recent  years,  a reduction  in  the  rate  of 
railway  expenditure,  but  that  by  no  means  compensated  for  the 
extravagant  outlay  on  the  existing  lines,  and  he  was  sorry  to  have 
to  accentuate  what  Mr.  Moncreiff  Paul  had  said.  One  of  the 
serious  difficulties  was  the  suddenly  increased  value  of  the  land, 
when  it  leaked  out  that  the  Government  had  decided  to  make  use 
of  it  for  railway  purposes.  Members  of  Colonial  Parliaments 
sometimes  utilised  the  early  knowledge  they  were  able  to  obtain 
of  the  intentions  of  the  Goverinnent  to  acquire  lands  which  they 
kncAV  would  be  required  for  railways.  In  one  instance,  which  he 
had  in  his  mind,  a large  fortune  had  been  made  in  this  way.  The 
high  rates  which  had  to  be  paid  for  the  lands,  as  well  as  the 
paucity  of  traffic  in  sparsely  populated  districts,  largely  accounted 
for  the  difficulty  in  making  the  railways  pay.  He  thought  the 
root  of  the  evil  with  regard  to  the  railway  system  in  Australia 
was  first  of  all  that  it  was  a Government  system.  That  question 
had  not  been  touched  upon,  but  it  was  a very  suggestive  question, 
more  particularly  as  there  was  a movement  in  this  country  in 
certain  quarters  for  the  transfer  of  railways  to  the  Government. 
In  his  opinion  it  was  a choice  of  evils,  but  he  ventured  to  think 
that  the  methods  pursued  in  the  United  States,  with  all  the  draw- 
backs of  private  ownerships  of  lines,  would  seem  to  afford  a better 
guarantee,  in  the  long  run,  for  the  healthful  development  of  com- 
mercial facilities,  than  the  placing  the  railways  of  the  country  in 
the  hands  of  the  Government.  He  was  strongly  of  opinion  that 
there  was  nothing  better  for  a politician  in  this  country,  who 
wanted  to  know  the  dangerous  tendencies  of  State  socialism  as 
affecting  railw^ay  and  other  kinds  of  property,  than  to  reside  for 
a time  in  the  Australasian  colonies,  where  it  was  to  be  feared 
socialistic  experiments  were  carried  to  excessive  lengths. 


The  Chaikman  (Sir  Courtenay  Boyle,  K.C.B.)  said  in  esti- 
mating the  application  of  figures  to  railways,  as  to  any  other  forni 
of  commercial  machinery,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  object  with 
which  the  railways  were  started.  Not  very  long  ago,  not  with 
regard  to  this  country  or  to  Australia,  he  asked  a gentleman  what 
he  thought  the  objects  of  light  railways  were  ? The  reply  was, 
that  the  principal  object  was  to  take  his  goods  over  somebody 
else’s  land,  at  somebody  else’s  expense,  to  somebody  else’s  market. 
That,  he  imagined,  was  not  the  intention  with  which  the  railways 
were  constructed  in  Australia,  and  certainly  not  in  this  country. 
He  had  been  very  much  impressed  by  the  observations  of  Mr.  Grut 
and  Mr.  Macfie,  who  had  pointed  out  that  railways  in  Australasia 


1899.] 


on  Mr.  Price  IlowelVs  Paper. 


123 


were  constructed  not  merely  with  a view  to  an  immediate  financial 
return,  but  with  the  object  of  developing  the  colony,  and  that  was 
an  object  which  would  commend  itself  to  all  concerned  in  the 
administration  of  those  great  colonies.  It  was  to  some  extent  the 
policy  followed  by  our  great  railway  companies  in  this  country. 
They  had  not  regarded  solely  the  immediate  return  from  a 
particular  line  they  were  desirous  of  constructing,  but  had  also 
regard  to  its  effect  on  the  whole  of  their  system.  In  the  same  way 
the  Governments  of  the  colonies  in  Australia  did  not  consider  the 
question  simply  with  regard  to  the  immediate  pecuniary  return, 
but  were  actuated  by  considerations  affecting  the  development  of 
the  colony  and  the  improvement  of  the  means  of  communication. 
They  might  be  quite  sure  that  in  the  long  run,  if  the  railways 
were  wisely  constructed,  returns  must  come  from  increase  of 
population,  and  consequently  of  trafi&c.  References  had  been 
made  to  the  difficulties  which  the  Governments  had  in  constructing 
branch  lines,  but  he  could  assure  Mr.  Macfie  that  our  big  railway 
companies  in  this  country  had  suffered  from  very  similar  difficulties. 
It  had  leaked  out  where  a railway  was  going  to  be  constructed,  and 
some  kind  friend  often  went  and  bought  the  land.  It  was  not  an 
exceptional  case  at  all,  the  only  difference  w^as  that  in  Australia 
the  Government  had  to  pay,  because  the  Government  owned  the 
railway,  and  in  this  country  the  shareholders  in  the  company  had 
to  pay.  As  a Government  officer,  he  was  very  glad  to  hear  what 
Mr,  Macfie  said  about  the  State  management  of  railways.  He 
attached  the  greatest  possible  importance  to  the  individual  enter- 
prise and  the  great  knowledge  and  zeal  with  which  the  great  com- 
panies of  this  country  managed  the  railways.  Perhaps  he  ought  to 
say  that  if  the  Government  managed  them  they  would  do  it  a great 
deal  better;  but  he  was  not  quite  certain  that  he  could  substantiate 
that  proposition.  With  regard  to  the  methods  on  which  the 
statistics  had  been  compiled.  Sir  Juland  Danvers  and  Mr.  Acworth 
both  showed  that  yearning  that  they  all  felt  for  the  ton- mile.  He 
had  been  yearning  for  it  for  the  last  fifteen  years,  and  he  supposed 
he  would  have  to  go  on  for  some  years  longer.  All  the  railway 
companies  expressed  their  utter  inability  to  give  the  ton-mile.  They 
said  that  in  England  a large  train  carried  articles  of  very  different 
value  for  various  distances  ; in  the  same  train  you  might  find  lace 
and  petroleum,  pianos  and  matches.  How  were  you  to  estimate  the 
cost  of  conveying  those  various  artigles  for  a particular  distance  ? 
That  was  the  answer  that  always  came  when  they  asked  for  the 
ton-mile.  He  was  sorry  to  hear  that  Mr,  Acworth  was  still 
dissatisfied  with  the  statistics  the  Board  of  Trade  furnished  for 
him,  but  when  he  said  the  figures  in  the  paper  were  infinitely 
superior  to  those  furnished  for  home  consumption,  he  should  like, 
without  at  all  quarrelling  with  him,  to  point  out  that  in  one  place 
they  were  told  that  in  some  of  the  colonies  at  least  it  was 
impossible  to  make  a distinction  between  passengers  and  goods  per 
train-mile.  At  any  rate  in  England  they  gave  the  difference 
between  passengers  and  goods  trains.  The  figures,  as  far  as  they 
were  quoted  in  the  paper,  showed  that  the  lessons  learned  in 
Australia  were  the  same  as  those  learned  here,  namely,  that  there 


124  Discussion  on  Mr.  Drice  IlowelVs  Paper.  [Mar. 

was  always  a temptation  to  put  upon  tlie  short  distance  traffic  as 
much  as  that  traffic  would  hear,  and  to  take  off  from  the  long 
distance  traffic  as  much  as  could  he  taken  off.  If  the  railway 
managers,  whether  Government  officers  or  his  friends  of  the 
London  and  North  Western  or  Great  Western  Railways,  did  not 
adopt  that  principle  they  would  find  very  great  difficulty  in  getting 
any  long  distance  traffic  at  all.  Another  thing  he  found  running 
through  the  statistics  was  that  the  opening  of  new  railways  (if 
they  were  wisely  conducted,  and  if  the  temptations  Mr.  Macfie  had 
referred  to  w^ere  sternly  resisted)  always  led  to  an  ultimate  de- 
velopment of  traffic.  The  more  you  wisely  increased  railways, 
even  in  this  thickly  populated  country,  the  more  the  traffic  grew. 
More  than  that  it  had  been  proved  over  and  over  again  that  the 
greater  the  facilities  the  railways  gave  to  the  public  the  greater 
would  the  returns  be.  There  were  several  other  lessons  to  be 
drawm  from  the  paper,  but  he  would  not  detain  the  meeting  any 
longer  except  to  move  a most  cordial  vote  of  thanks  to  the  writer 
of  the  paper,  which  would  be  conveyed  to  him  by  the  secretary. 


19 


1866]  Reform  in  England, 

In  other  words,  a £I0  tenant*at-will  clause  would  add  just  40  per  cent 
to  the  existing  countituencies,  and  a £20  clause  only  17|^  per  cent.  If  a 
rating  franchise  in  lieu  of  a rental  one  were  adopted  for  the  counties  (of 
which  there  is  some  intimation),  a £10  limit  would  add  about  230,000, 
and  a £15  limit  perhaps  150,000.  But  this  is  conjectural.  It  is  under- 
stood that  a savings  bank  qualification  is  to  be  introduced,  and  some  re- 
turns have  been  presented  to  Parliament  along  with  the  electoral  statistics, 
to  enable  us  to  judge  of  the  effect  of  such  a proposal.  From  them  it  ap- 
pears that  a qualification  based  upon  the  having  had  £50  in  a savings 
bank  for  one  year  would  give  the  franchise  to  97,000  adult  males.  If  two 
years  were  required,  the  number  would  be  only  87,000.  In  either  case 
about  30,000  of  these  would,  it  is  estimated,  belong  to  the  working 
classes.  Now  the  facts  developed  in  these  tables  are  remarkable  ; and  it 
is  still  more  remarkable  that  they  all  point  in  one  direction.  The  follow- 
ing conclusion  from  them  seem  irresistible,  unexpected  as  they  are: — 1st. 
That  the  electoral  franchise  is  gradually  extending  itself  by  a natural 
operation,  and  on  the  whole  at  a pretty  rapid  rate — much  more  rapidly 
at  all  events  than  the  population.  2nd.  That  already  one-fourth  of  the 
entire  borough  constituency  of  England  and  Wales  consists  of  working 
men,  and  in  several  towns  considerably  more.  3rd.  That  a £6  rating  or 
an  £8  rental  qualification  would  apparently  add  about  25  per  cent  to  the 
existing  number  of  borough  electors,  and  that  most  of  these  new  men 
would  belong  to  the  working  classes  ; so  that  in  some  towns  either  mea- 
sure would  give  the  command  of  the  representation  to  those  classes.  4th. 
That  a £50  savings  bank  franchise  would  admit  nearly  100,000  electors, 
of  whom  one-third  would  be  working  men.” 

The  following  is  a return  of  the  male  occupiers  at  specified  rentals : 


Rental. 

Rateable  Value 

Male  occupiers 

at  £4  and  under  £5 

108,405 

177,530 

5 

6 

131,762 

135,634 

tt 

6 

7 

49,939 

“ 

7 

8 

94  044 

60,617 

“ 

8 

9 

69,147 

65,268 

9 

10 

43,209 

4 3,612 

“ 

10  and  over 

639,043 

530,585 

To  the  rateable  value  column  should  be  added  the  occupiers  at  £6, 
amounting  to  55,666,  which  would  make  the  number  at  £6  and  under 
£7,105,605. 

The  return  for  the  counties  is  as  follows : — The  number  of  male  occu- 
piers of  a house  or  other  building  with  or  without  land  in  counties  was  at 
the  rateable  value  of  £10  and  under  £12,  47,268  ; at  £12  and  under  £15, 
53,885  ; at  £15  and  under  £20,  60,903  ; at  £20  and  under  £50,  125,489, 
Total  at  £10  and  under  £50,  287,545  ; at  £12  and  under  £50,  240,277  ; 
and  at  £15  and  under  £50,  186,392.  The  number  of  electors  on  register 
1864-5  as  £50  occupying  tenants  was  116,860  ; the  number  of  male  oc- 
cupiers at  gross  estimated  rental  of  £50  and  upward  was  155,847  ; and  the 
total  number  of  electors  on  register  1864  5 was  542,633.  The  population 
of  counties  in  1831  was  8,689,277,  and  in  1861,11,427,655. 

Regarding  Birkenhead,  Chester,  Manchester,  and  Liverpool,  the  follow- 
ing statistics  are  given  : Birkenhead : Voters,  4,563 ; actual  number  of 
persons  who  were  under  description  of  mechanics,  artizans,  and  others, 


20 


Tkt  Imperial  Mexican  Railuony. 


[July, 


snpportinoj  themselves  hy  manual  labor,  2,005.  Chester:  Voters,  2,27  i : 
£10  occupiers,  301  ; freemen,  053;  mechanics,  artizans,  (fee.,  supporting; 
themselves  by  manual  labor,  987.  Liverpool  ; Voters,  20,018;  £10  occu- 
piers and  freemen,  or  scot  and  lot  voters,  Potwallers,  or  other  ancient  rii^bt 
qualifications,  381  ; mechanics,  artizans,  and  other  persona  supporting 
themselves  by  manual  labor  who  have  a vote,  2,080.  Manchester:  Voters, 
21,542;  mechanics,  artizans,  and  other  persons  supporting  themselves  by 
manual  labor  who  have  a vote,  5,822. 

In  (able  A we  find  (hat  the  population  of  the  boroughs  in  Knirland  and 
Wales  in  1831  was  5,207,520.  In  1805-0  it  is  estimated  at  0,320,709, 
showing  a net  increase  of  4,120,000.  The  total  ninnber  of  electors  on 
the  register  of  1832-3  was  282,938;  in  1805-0,  514,020,  including 
double  entries  ; but  not  including  double  entries,  488,920.  Tlie  net  in- 
crease of  electors  on  register  is  231,028.  The  number  of  electors  who 
voted  at  the  last  general  election  was  280,793,  including  in  some  cases 
the  votes  recorded,  when  the  number  of  voters  could  not  be  given. 

It  also  appears  that  the  total  number  of  freemen  on  the  register  1832-3 
was  03,481  ; on  the  register  1805-0,  41,0 1 1 , showing  a decrease  of  2 1,8  10. 
The  total  number  of  scot  and  lot  voters,  cfec.,  in  1832-3,  was  44,738  ; 
their  number  now  is  7,837,  a decrease  of  freemen,  scot  an  1 hjt  voters,  cfec, 
is  57,741. 

As  to  the  number  of  electors  coming  within  the  description  of  mechanics^ 
supporting  tkemsives  hy  daily  minual  lahor^  there  are  108,298 
among  the  £10  occupiers;  20,018  among  the  freemen;  2,348  among  the 
scot  and  lot  voters — the  total  being  130,001.  Deducting  2,001  for  those 
who  are  on  the  register  in  respect  of  more  thin  one  qualification,  the  actu- 
al number  of  electors  who  come  within  the  description  is  128,0  )3. 

In  tlie  borough  of  Liverpool  the  gross  estimate  I rental  in  1 85  1 was 
£1,080,824;  the  present,  £2, 055,838,  showing  an  increase  of  £975,004. 
The  rateable  value  in  1850  was  £1,527,831;  the  present  £2,402,584, 
showing  an  increase  of  £874,753.  The  number  of  male  occupiers  was  at 
a gross  rental  of  under  £0,  1,385;  £0  and  under  £7,  3,152  ; £7  and  under 
£8,  5,245:  £8  and  under  £9,  £5,925  ; £9  and  under  £10,  4,737;  £10 
and  over  £40,079. 


THE  IMPERIAL  MEXICAN  RAILWAY. 

Whatever  may  be  said  for  or  against  the  existing  Imperial  Govern- 
ment of  Mexico,  considered  in  the  light  of  political  philosophy,  one  thing 
at  least  the  practical  good  sense  of  mankind  will  sooner  or  later  credit 
it  with ; that  it  has  been  the  first  government  ever  established  in  Mexi- 
co which  has  extended  a systematic  and  efficient  protection  to  great 
works  of  internal  improvement. 

The  question  whether  the  true  and  lawful  Republican  authority  in 
Mexico  resides  in  the  person  of  Benito  Juarez,  at  Chihuahua,  or  in  the 
person  of  Gonzales  Atega,  at  El  Paso  del  Agnila,  or  in  the  person  of 
General  Ogazon,  at  some  point  just  now  not  clearly  ascertained,  is  one 
which  we  do  not  profess  to  discuss.  But  the  fact  that  the  current  month 
of  June  is  destined  to  witness  the  opening  of  nearly  one  hundred 
miles  of  railway  communication  between  the  City  ol  Mexico  and  the 
Junction  of  Apizaco,  on  the  way  to  Puebla,  is,  to  say  the  least  cf  it,  quite 


1866] 


The  Imperial  Mexican  Railway. 


21 


as  important  to  the  commerce  and  the  interests  of  mankind  ; and  it  is 
but  fair  to  the  capitalists  and  the  contractors  who,  acting  under  the 
authority  of  Maxmilian,  have  achieved  this  result,  that  some  notice  should 
be  taken  in  foreign  countries  of  the  resolution  and  the  skill  with  which 
they  are  pushing  forward  to  completion  the  first  grand  steamhigh'^^ay  of 
Mexico. 

The  “ Imperial  Mexican  Railway  Company”  was  formed  in  Septem- 
ber, 1804,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  project  of  a direct  com- 
munication by  steam  between  Vera  Cruz  and  the  capital,  originally  con- 
ceived, many  years  ago,  by  one  of  the  few  really  enterprising  natives 
of  Modern  Mexico,  the  late  Don  Manuel  Escandon.  The  project  of 
Escandon  was  arrested  in  its  development  by  the  fearful  political  con- 
dition of  the  country.  Since  five  Presidents  during  the  ephemeral  rule 
offered  the  project  a support  which  they  never  made  good  ; and  when 
the  present  company  w’as  formed,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Empire, 
there  existed  in  Mexico  only  about  fifty  miles  of  railway,  divided  between 
the  State  line,  which  running  out  of  Vera  Cruz  terminated  at  La 
Soledad,  at  which  place  the  famous  convention  of  1862  was  signed  between 
Juarez  and  the  European  Allies,  and  the  still  shorter  line  which,  running 
out  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  terminated  at  Guadalope,  the  “ sacred  mount” 
of  Mexican  Catholics  in  the  Loretto  of  the  Indian  populations  in 
and  around  the  capital.  A beginning  had  thus  been  made  at  both 
ends,  but  between  there  intervened  a vast  distance  of  nearly  300 
miles,  over  which  the  most  important  traffic  of  the  country,  between 
its  chief  city  and  its  most  flourishing  seaport,  had  to  be  carried  on 
over  an  ancient  and  dilapidated  Spanish  road,  climbing  mountains  and 
sinking  into  gullies,  and  so  tremendously  difficult  of  travel,  even  by 
the  heavy  wagons  and  the  indefatigable  mules  of  Mexico,  that  the 
average  cost  of  transportation  from  Mexico  City  to  Vera  Cruz  has 
long  ranged  in  the  neighborhood  of  forty  dollars  per  ton.  That,  in  spite 
of  these  difficulties  and  the  enormous  consequent  expense,  a constant 
demand  existed  at  the  City  of  Mexico  for  the  costliest  and  most  varied 
cargoes  of  European  and  American  goods  which  could  be  imported  into 
Vera  Cruz,  was  a sufficient  argument  of  the  results  possible  to  be  achieved 
by  the  construction  of  a through  line  of  railway.  This,  with  other 
arguments,  being  urged  in  London  by  the  leading  capitalists  of  Mexico, 
the  “ Imperial  Mexican  Company”  was  finally  formed  at  the  time  we 
have  mentioned  above;  the  Government  of  Maximilian  offering  pro- 
tection to  the  roads,  and  a handsome  contribution  towards  defraying 
their  cost.  The  contracts  for  building  the  road,  300  miles  in  length,  were 
given  out  originally  to  Smith,  Knight  & Co.,  of  London,  by  whom  they 
were  afterwards  transferred  to  Crawley  & Co.,  another  well-known 
English  firm.  The  line  of  the  proposed  road  was  surveyed  and  laid  out 
throughout  its  entire  length  by  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  Ameri- 
can railway  engineers.  Col.  Andrew  Talcott,  and  on  the  13th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1865,  Mr.  Wm.  Lloyd,  the  experienced  constructor  of  the  most 
difficult  mountain  railways  of  South  America,  acting  as  Director-in-Chief 
under  the  contract  with  Messrs.  Crawley  & Co.,  made  a commencement 
of  the  railway  at  the  point  of  greatest  difficulty,  near  the  Cumbres,  or 
mountains  of  Boca  del  Monte. 

The  road  at  that  time  had  been  carried  on  from  La  Soledad  to  Paso 


• 22 


The  hwperial  Mexican  Railway. 


[July. 


del  Macho,  a point  05  miles  distant  from  Vera  Cruz,  at  wliicli,  during 
the  last  year,  a small  town  of  more  than  2,000  inljahitants  has  sprung 
U[),  with  schools,  hotels,  a railway  station,  and  all  the  other  evidences 
of  a state  of  progress  and  civilization  which  we  find  germinating  along 
the  path  of  the  railway  in  the  expanding  n’gions  of  odr  own  Western 
domain. 

1\)  appreciate  fully  the  progress  made  since  that  date,  of  which  pro- 
gress the  opening  of  the  line  between  Mexico  and  Apizaco  is  the  imme- 
diate and  striking  proof,  it  is  necessary  for  the  reailcr  to  bear  with  us 
while  we  sketch  out  for  him  hastily  the  enormous,  the  literally  enor- 
mous dilficulties  in  the  way  of  this  gigantic  i-ailway  enterprise. 

As  the  crow  (lies,  Mexii^o  City  lies  at  a distance  of  about  200  mile.s 
from  Vera  Cruz.  Hut  while  Vera  Cruz  is  seated  on  the  edge  of  the 
ocean,  Mexico  City  is  situated  on  a height  of  no  less  than  7,.‘}40  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  Had  it  been  found  practicable  to  build  a railway  of 
uniform  ascent  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico,  therefore,  it  would  have 
been  necessary  to  give  that  railway  an  ascending  incline  of  no  less  than 
feet  per  mile,  a piece  of  engineering  work  which  rni^^ht  well  appal 
the  inexperienced  and  give  the  most  experienced  “ pause.’’  But  even 
this  was  not  practicable.  Between  Vera  Cruz  and  Alexico  a point  must 
be  passed  much  higher  than  the  elevation  of  Mexico  itself.  The  country 
which  intervenes  between  the  two  may  be  described  as  made  up  of 
two  great  plateaux,  united  by  an  inclined  plane — the  lower  plateau 
averaging  about  700  feet,  and  the  upper  about  8,000  feet  in  elevation 
above  the  sea-level.  Between  these  two  plateaux  is  a distance  of  about 
fifty-five  miles,  which  distance  is  broken  up  into  lofty  and  rugged  chains 
of  mountains  called  in  the  country  Cumbres,  which  form  the  eastern 
flank  of  the  upper  plateau.  The  width  of  the  lower  plateau  itself  is  just 
about  equal  to  that  of  this  intervening  space,  orfifty-five  miles  ; and  con- 
sequently, the  ascent  to  the  level  of  the  upper  plateau  had  to  be  accom- 
plished within  a distance  of  llO  miles  from  the  coast,  a feat  absolutely 
without  paraellel  in  railway  experience,  and  the  proportions  of  which 
will  be  more  fully  comprehended  when  we  remember  that  in  travers- 
ing the  lower  plateau  which  takes  the  road  over  one-half  this  distance, 
or  fifty-five  miles,  the  engineers  reach  an  elevation  of  only  1,500  feet, 
leaving  them  to  master  a further  elevation  of  nearly  7,000  feet  within 
the  succeeding  55  miles  to  the  crest  of  the  Cumbres  above  spoken  of. 

Here,  then,  was  the  problem  of  the  railway,  to  accomplish  an  ascent 
of  6,540  feet  in  55  miles,  corresponding  to  119  feet  per  mile,  or  two 
feet  in  44^  feet  throughout  the  whole  distance. 

The  following  table  of  the  severest  ascents  heretofore  known  in 
railway  engineering  will  give  the  most  accurate  idea  possible  of  the 
task  imposed  upon  Colonel  Talcott  and  M.  Lloyd. 

Ascent.  Eailway.  Feet  per  mile. 

The  Gif)vi  Incline Turin  & Genoa,  Italy 147  for  6 miles. 

Tlic  Serninering  “ Vienna  & Trieste,  Austria 113  for  13>^  miles. 

The  Chanarcillo  “ Copiapo,  Chili 196  for  13  miles. 

ThcTahon  “ Valp,  & Santiago,  Chili 120  for  12  miles. 

The  Alleghany  “ Baltimore  »&  Ohio,  U.  S 117  for  11  miles^ 

But  even  these  figures  do  not  fully  set  forth  the  extraordinary  nature 
<){'  these  great  works  in  Mexico ; until  we  take  into  the  account  that 
whereas  the  most  abrupt  ascent  ever  before  achieved,  that  of  the 


The  Imperial  Mexican  Railway. 


23 


1866] 


Chanarcillo  on  the  Copiapo  line  in  Chili,  is  of  19G  feet  in  13  miles,  the 
chief  incline  of  the  Imperial  Mexican  Railway  at  Maltrata  near  Orizaba 
will  overcome  211  feet  per  mile  in  a distance  of  23  miles.  In  achiev- 
ing this  part  of  the  works,  the  engineers  have  been  called  upon  to 
construct  over  the  river  Metlac,  midway  between  the  cities  of  Orizaba 
and  Cordova,  a viaduct  which,  when  completed,  will  surpass  any  struc- 
ture of  the  kind  now  existing  in  the  world,  and  will,  of  itself,  be  well 
worth  a trip  to  Mexico  to  see.  This  viaduct,  to  consist  of  an  iron  bridge, 
now  constructing  and  nearly  completed  in  England,  will  carry  the  road 
over  the  Barranca  de  Metlac,  at  the  enormous  height  of  380  English  feet 
being  nearly  150  feet  higher  than  any  such  work  now  extant,  so  that  it, 
would  be  possible  to  pile  upon  the  spire  of  Trinity  Church  the  spire 
of  Grace  without  reaching  the  roadway  sustained  upon  its  magnificent 
arches. 

Some  notion  of  the  strictly  engineering  difficulties  of  the  work  under- 
taken by  the  Imperial  Mexican  Company,  and  to  be  completed,  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  its  contract  with  Crawley  & Co.,  before  the  30th 
April,  1869,  may  be  derived  even  from  these  brief  statistical  notes.  But 
when  the  reader  reflects  further  that  all  the  most  important  materials, 
the  rails,  the  working  tools,  many  of  the  supplies  for  the  great  bodies 
of  workmen  to  be  employed  on  the  line,  not  only  up  to  these  heights  of 
the  Cumbres,  but  far  beyond  them  upon  he  upper  plateau,  stretching 
from  the  Cumbres  by  Puebla  to  Mexico,  must  be  imported  from 
Europe  and  America,  and  tansported  hundreds  of  miles  on  the  backs  of 
mules,  or  in  the  wide  broad-wheeled  wagons  of  the  country  over  the 
most  execrable  roads  on  earth,  he  will  readily  agree  with  us,  that  when 
the  Imperial  Company  in  June,  1866,  can  point  to  more  than  160  miles, 
or  over  half  their  whole  line  opened  to  commerce,  they  may  fairly  claim 
to  have  accomplished  as  handsome  a year’s  work  as  men  need  be  called 
upon  to  do.  In  accomplishing  this,  the  Company  have  expended,  for 
example,  more  than  a million  of  dollars  upon  the  transportation  of  rails 
alone  from  the  coast  to  the  line  on  the  upper  plateau.  They  have  em- 
ployed, and  now  employ,  a total  force  in  all  departments  of  about  10,000 
persons ; they  are  receiving  rails  and  other  materials  in  the  port  of  Vera 
Cruz  at  the  rate  of  about  2,000  tons  per  month.  England  having  recog- 
nized the  de  facto  Imperial  Government  at  Mexico,  the  vast  business 
connected  with  this  enterprise,  which  naturally  and  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances would  have  inured  to  the  benefit  of  American  industry  and 
capital,  has,  of  course,  been  chiefly  carried  on  the  profit  of  Great  Britain. 
American  engineers  are,  however,  employed  under  Col.  Talcott  on  all 
parts  of  the  walls,  the  difficult  section  of  the  Chiquihuite,  on  the  edge  of 
the  tierra  caliente,  or  tropical  region,  being  under  the  charge  of  Mr. 
Deckert,  of  Pennsylvania,  an  engineer  who  has  learned  in  Cuba  to  make 
light  of  the  vomito,  and  to  keep  a cool  brain  under  the  hottest  suns. 

The  opening  of  the  upper  sections  between  Mexico  and  Otumba,  and 
Otumba  and  Apizaco,  will  give  an  immediate  impulse  to  the  intercourse 
between  the  two  great  cities  of  Puebla  and  Mexico,  and  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  extensive  intervening  country.  In  conjunction  with  the 
lower  section,  already  in  operation  between  Vera  Cruz  and  Paso  del 
Macho,  passengers  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico  will  thus  be  enabled 
to  make  their  journey  in  two  days,  instead  of  three,  and  light  goods, 


System  Metrigue. 


[July, 


21 

which  now  require  three  weeks  in  the  transport,  will  ))e  forwarclefl  in  six 
days.  Such  a consuniination  may  truly  })e  regarded  as  a great  and 
glorious  victory  won  for  civilization  and  true  progress  in  M<?xico. 
Whether  under  the  banner  of  an  Etnpire  or  the  banner  of  a Uepublic, 
the  “road-maker”  is  the  true  benefactor  f)f  nations,  the  true  precursor 
and  proi)het  ol  liberty,  and  all  good  things  which  come  with  liberty, 
wisely  understood  and  wisely  practiced. 


SYSTEIIK  METRIPE. 

Modkrn  commerce  has  encountered  no  greater  obstacle  to  its  jirogress 
than  the  multiplicity  of  weights,  measures  and  moneys  used  in  its  prose- 
cution. Not  alone  the  great  nations  of  the  world,  but  every  }»etty  principality 
and  power,  untd  recently  had  their  own  denominations  and  values,  differ- 
ing greatly  from  one  another  and  only  translatable  through  the  aid  of 
voluminous  dictionaries  compiled  from  elaborate  comparisons.  Such  a 
condition  of  affairs  might  be  tolerated  in  the  primitive  eras  of  nations, 
before  travel  and  national  interchanges  of  products  became  the  great  busi- 
ness of  the  human  race;  but  in  the  present  era,  when  the  railroad  and 
steamship  carry  passengers  and  freight  with  the  swallow’s  pace,  and  when 
the  commingling  of  nations  makes  the  world  as  a single  brotherhood, 
something  more  simple  and  universal  in  its  functions  is  demanded,  which 
the  denizens  of  each  and  every  nation,  however  foreign  to  each  other  in 
language,  can  easily  cornprehetid.  The  great  want  has  been  and  still  con- 
tinues in  a measui'e  to  be  a universal  system,  with  a nomenclature,  founded 
on  the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin,  languages  in  universal  use.  The  adoption 
of  such  a system  was  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  French  Revolutionary 
government,  which  in  1799  proclaimed  the  Systeine  Metrique.  It  has  since 
boen  adopted  either  wholly  or  partially,  and  its  use  become  permissive  or 
obligatory  in  almost  every  civilized  country.  We  ourselves  have  for 
many  years  used  it  in  scientific  processes,  and  are  now  about  to  bring  it  into 
general  use.  A bill  to  this  effect  is  before  Congress,  and  has  already  been 
sanctioned  by  the  Representatives  ; and  there  appears  to  be  little  doubt 
but  that  the  bill  will  finally  become  a law,  and  the  system  in  a short  time 
be  popularized  throughout  the  Union.  The  change  demanded  by  the  new 
system  will  come  easier  to  ourselves  than  to  nations  wholly  accustomed  to 
multiply  and  divide  by  the  binary  process.  We  have  learned  the  deciin?! 
mode  of  proceeding  from  our  own  money  system,  and  hence  to  carry  its 
application  to  weights  and  measures  will  soon  become  familiar.  Other- 
wise than  this,  the  change  contemplated  by  the  present  law  is  without 
complexity,  being  simply  the  substitution  of  one  unit  of  value  for  another. 
What  follows  will  explain  the  whole  subject. 

HARMONY  OF  THE  FRENCH  SYSTEM. 

Though  decimal  weights  and  measures  will  be  new. to  this  country,  they 
are  not  new  to  the  world.  They  originated  in  France  three  quarters  of  a 
century  ago,  where  they  have  been  fully  tested  in  the  crucible  of  coiumerce  ; 
and  the  system  there  adopted  has  been  proved  to  be  the  best  that  it  is 
possible  for  man,  aided  by  science,  to  devise.  In  France  it  has  had  the 
best  trial  it  is  possible  that  it  could  have ; for  it  is  only  in  a country  where 


INDIA  RAILROADS  AND  THE  COTTON  TRADE. 


137 


1867] 


The  following  table,  deduced  from  the  above,  exhibits  the  relation  of 
capital,  earnings,  profits,  &c.,  and  the  rates  of  dividend  paid  in  the 
several  vears  : 


Earnings  per  mile 6,614 

Expenses  per  mile 2,801 

Expe a ses  per  cent 42.35 

Net  earnings  per  cent  per  mile 3,813 

Net  earnings  per  cent 57.65 

Net  earning  to  capital  per  cent 13.85 

Net  earnings  to  cost,  &c.,  per  ct 15.60 

Dividends  per  cent— cash 

Dividends  per  cent— stock 


1861. 

1862, 

1863. 

1864. 

1865. 

1866. 

$24,439  $25,938  $27,330  $24,837  $24,837  $25,413 

6,614 

9,031 

11,266 

13,085 

12,493 

10,124 

2,801 

3 320 

4,443 

6,619 

8,118 

6,565 

42.35 

36.76 

39.43 

40.60 

65.00 

64.81 

3,813 

5,711 

6,823 

6,466 

4,375 

3,559 

57.65 

63.24 

60.57 

59.40 

35.00 

35.19 

13.85 

19.79 

20.02 

19.03 

12.75 

10.54 

15.60 

22.02 

24.99 

26.03 

17.61 

14.00 

13 

15 

11 

15 

10 

8 

5 

20 

The  net  earnings,  as  above,  are  the  gross  earnings  less  operating- 
expenses,  and  before  any  deduction  is  made  for  taxes  or  other  extraordinary 
accounts. 

The  market  price  of  the  stock  of  the  company  (range)  for  each  month 
is  stated  below : 


1861.  1862.  1863.  1864. 

January 92  @100  110  @110  147  @175  180  @180 

Eehruaiy 94  @ 94J  103  @110  155  @161  146  @157 

March 93i@100^  109i@113  158  @167  157^@175 

April 90  @ 95  112  @115  158i@160  165  @174 

May 91  @ 93i  112|@116i  160  @165  168  @168 

June 93i@  97  119  @120  159  @161  167j@169 

July 94  @ 98  113  @1-25  155  @160  149  @170 

August 94  @ 95  118  @125  155  @155  170  @171 

Sept’r 95  @ 96i  121  @125  150  @155  170  @170 

October 96|@  99  132  @135  160  @160  164  @164 

Novem’r 97  @ 99  135^138  155  @157i  170  @170i 

Decem’r 100  @102  141  @145  163  @181  180  @182 


1865. 
170@180 
150@160 
130@150 
. @ .. 
130@  35 
128@130i 
130@133 
124@130 
125@128 
127@130 
127@130 
125@127J 


1866. 

110  @123 
114  @115 

111  @115 
114i@115 
114  @115 
116  @118 
110  @113i 
110  @llli 
llli@115 
113  @115 
llli@113| 
109  @112 


Year 


90  @102  103  @145  147  @181  146  @182 


124@180  109  @123 


imik  RAILROADS  AND  THE  COTTON  TRADE. 

The  efforts  recently  made  by  the  English  Government  to  develop  the 
resources  of  its  vast  emrpiein  Hindostan,  evince  remarkable  energy  and 
sagacity.  Probably  no  country  in  the  world  has  made  more  material 
progress  within  the  last  few  years  than  British  India.  Notwithstanding 
the  discouragements  arising  from  the  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys,  and  the 
disasters  of  famine  and  financial  collapse,  the  present  condition  and  future 
prospects  of  the  people  have  been  greatly  improved.  Railroads  have 
' been  built,  highways  have  been  thrown  up,  canals  widened  and  deepened, 
obstructions  removed  from  rivers,  bridges  constructed  over  rivers  and 
mountain  chasms,  and  the  jungle  has  been  rendered  passable  for  the  first 
time. 

j These  great  changes  in  the  condition  of  the  interior  of  British  India 
, were  initiated,  or,  at  least,  actively  commenced  in  accordance  with  a 

I policy  adopted  at  the  commencement  of  our  civil  war.  England,  in 

place  of  attempting  to  break  up  our  monopoly  of  the  cotton  trade  by  an 
open  and  formal  assistance  of  the  South,  resolved  to  effect  the  same 
object  by  other  and  surer  means.  Her  statesmen,  with  far  reaching 
sagacity,  resolved  to  improve  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  American 
[ crisis,  so  as  to  attach  the  tottering  Indian  Empire  to  the  imperial  gover- 

1 nment  by  a bridge  of  gold.  India  has  always  been  famous  for  cotton 

VOL.  LVII — NO.  II.  4 


138  INDIA  RAILROADS  AND  THE  COTTON  TRADE. 

manufactures  of  unrivalled  fineness  and  elegance,  and  it  was  known  that 
her  climate  presented  admirable  facilities  for  the  culture  of  the  raw 
material.  Under  the  stimulus  of  high  prices  the  whole  world  was 
invited  to  compete  for  the  production  of  cotton.  Ibit  special  measures, 
as  is  well  known,  W'cre  adopted  to  develop  its  culture  in  British  India, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  wealth  and  experience  of  the  English  people 
and  government  were  brought  into  requisition. 

The  opportunities  were  favorable.  The  Imperial  Government  had  got 
rid  of  the  cumbersome  and  obsolete  machinery  of  the  East  India  Coin- 
pany,  and  assumed  direct  control  of  the  vast  Empire  of  India.  In 
18G0-G1,  the  Marquis  Dalhousie,  Governor  General,  inaugurated  the 
extensive  system  of  internal  improvement,  which  was  to  enable  the 
people  of  llindostan  to  compete  with  America  for  the  cotton  trade  of 
the  world.  To  effect  this  object  great  changes  were  required.  The  most 
favorable  cotton  regions  of  India  w’ere  inaccessible  for  want  of  proper 
facilities  for  communication.  In  order  to  get  the  staple  to  a market,  it 
was  necessary  to  carry  it  by  man  and  horse  power  over  vast  tracts  of 
jungle,  across  mountains  and  ravines,  and  ferry  it  over  great  rivers. 

To  obviate  these  difficulties,  the  railroad  movement  inaugurated  was 
of  the  most  comprehensive  character.  The  population  of  India  subject 
to  the  English  government  is  probably  not  less  than  two  hundred  mil- 
lions. The  country  comprises  an  area  of  1,3G4,000  square  miles,  stretch- 
ing 1,800  miles  in  length  and  1,500  miles  in  breadth  from  east  to  west. 
There  is  a coast  line  of  3,200  miles,  of  which  1,900  are  on  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  1,300  on  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  climate  is  tropical,  but 
embraces  every  variety  of  temperature  from  the  extreme  cold  of  the 
Himmalayan  mountains  to  the  warmth  of  the  tropics.  This  great  country 
is  broken  up  into  an  almost  endless  geographical  diversity.  There  are 
vast  and  impassable  jungles,  huge  forests,  mighty  rivers,  mountain 
chains  and  extensive  plains,  the  whole  being  combined  with  a wonderful 
luxuriance  of  vegetation,  which  at  every  step  obstructs  progress  and 
almost  prevents  any  passage  by  man  or  beast. 

It  was  over  this  country,  presenting  so  many  difficulties,  that  Lord 
Dalhouse  contemplated  his  admirable  network  of  railroads.  The  system 
was,  of  course,  planned  with  reference  to  the  geographical  features  of 
the  country,  so  as  to  connect  the  extremes  of  the  vast  empire  with 
grand  trunk  lines,  from  which  branch  lines,  or  feeders,  might  be  con- 
structed, according  to  the  future  requirements  of  local  commerce.  Four 
thousand  six  hundred  miles  of  railroad  were  to  be  built,  at  an  estimated 
expense  of  $400,000,000.  The  credit  of  the  Imperial  Government  was 
granted  to  private  companies,  guaranteeing  a certain  amount  of  interest 
on  all  money  invested  in  Indian  railroads.  The  government  wisely  left 
all  details  of  construction  and  management  to  the  energies  of  the  com- 
panies themselves,  which  had  every  motive  for  economy,  as  all  money 
earned  above  the  guaranteed  dividends  was  clear  gain.  This  system 
worked  so  well,  that  last  year  several  Indian  railways  exceeded  the  5 
per  cent,  guaranteed  interest.  During  the  half  year  ending  December 
31st,  the  East  Indian  and  the  Great  Peninsular  railroad  companies  were 
able  to  declare  surplus  dividends.  Half  the  amount  of  surplus  income 
v/as  devoted  to  the  repayment  of  former  advances  for  interest  by  the 
government,  and  the  other  half  was  divided  among  the  stockholders , 


13D 


1367]  INDIA  RAILROADS  AND  THE  COTTON  TRADE. 

The  net  amount  of  guaranteed  interest  paid  by  the  government  diminishes 
every  year.  In  1865  the  amount  was  £1,450,000;  in  1866  it  was 
£800,000,  and  this  year  only  £600,000  was  required.  These  figures 
indicate  the  profitable  character  of  these  Indian  railroad  enterprises.  ^ 

The  original  system  of  Indian  railroads  contemplated  the  establish- 
ment of  communications  between  Bombay,  Madras  and  Calcutta,  the 
three  great  centres  of  military  and  commercial  power.  The  extremes 
of  the  empire  were  united,  and  roads  were  cut  through  the  great 
agricultural  and  producing  districts.  The  East  Indian  Railroad  Com- 
pany has  now  under  its  management  1,310  miles  of  railway,  constructed 
at  an  expense  of  1100,000,000,  and  is  the  longest  line  of  road  in  the 
world  under  one  company.  The  Great  Indian  Peninsular  road  will 
be  1,233  miles  long  when  completed,  and  next  year  it  will  be  open  for 
traffic  along  its  entire  length.  In  1868  from  Calcutta  to  Bombay,  a dis- 
tance of  1,458  miles,  there  will  be  an  unbroken  railroad  communication. 
The  branch  lines  connecting  with  the  main  stems  are  of  great  extent,  and 
will  cost  as  much  money  as  the  main  roads.  To  show  the  progress  of 
Indian  railroads  it  may  be  stated  that  it  is  only  fourteen  years  since  the 
first  line  was  opened  in  that  country.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
3,200  miles  in  operation,  and  next  year  a thousand  additionalymiles  will 

be  completed.  ^ ^ . i 

This  development  of  railroads  in  British  India  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance as  affecting  the  cotton  trade.  Eormerly  we  enjoyed  a monopoly 
of  the  market ; now,  nearly  one-half  of  the  cotton  manufactured  in  Eng- 
land is  derived  from  India  alone.  A late  Liverpool  circulars  estimates 
the  quantity  of  American  cotton  now  on  hand  and  to  arrive  before  De- 
cember 31st,  1867,  at  680,000  bales,  while  the  supply  of  India  cotton 
for  the  same  period  is  estimated  at  925,000  bales.  Without  express- 
ing any  opinion  as  to  the  correctness  of  these  figures,  the  more  important 
fact  for  us  to  remember  is  that  the  manufacturers  of  England  have  so 
altered  and  improved  their  machinery  as  to  be  able  to  use  in  much  larger 
proportion  than  formerly  the  shorter  India  staple,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  the  quality  of  cotton  from  that  country  has  been  decidedly  and 
steadily  improved,  and  is  being  more  carefully  prepared  for  market. 
Judging  then  of  the  future  from  the  past,  it  may  be  expected  to  equal 
the  American  article  at  no  distant  period. 

The  establishment  of  railroads  in  India  removes  the  chief  obstacles  to 
the  growth  of  an  almost  unlimited  supply  of  cotton.  The  country  is 
admirably  adapted  for  it,  and  the  teeming  population  has  long  been 
familiar  with  the  staple,  and  exhibit  great  aptitude  in  its  culture.  The 
best  cotton  regions  have  not  yet  been  opened  to  the  world ; the  only 
facilities  for  reaching  a market  being  the  slow  and  expensive  process  of 
cattle  teams.  The  new  railroads,  however,  will  convey  the  products  of 
these  regions  to  market  cheaply  and  expeditiously.  And  it  is  a noticeable 
feature  of  Indian  railroad  companies  that  their  revenues  are  derived  from 
goods  rather  than  from  passengers.  Of  $35,000,000  income  of  Indian 
railroads  during  the  three  years  ending  June,  1866,  two-thirds  were 
received  from  merchandise  traffic. 

These  facts  throw  considerable  light  on  the  future  of  the  American  cot-^ 
ton  trade.  They  indicate  that  American  cotton  will  henceforth  be  suhjec^ 
to  a keen  and  active  competition.  The  cheapness  of  labor  in  India  wil 


140  TUE  GROWTH  OF  OUR  CAPITAL  AND  INVESTMENTS.  [Au^USi, 

also  tend  to  place  us  at  a disadvantage,  as  it  is  doubtful  whether  tlio 
frccdmen  can  work  as  cheaply  as  the  Hindoo,  wlio  lives  on  a handful 
of  rice  a day,  and  whose  clothing  consists  of  a yard  of  calico  a year. 
It  is  evident  therefore  that  the  trade  in  our  chief  staple  will  be  sub- 
ject in  the  future  to  new  conditions  that  may  seriously  affect  our  entire 
country.  In  this  view  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  every  facility 
should  be  extended  to  the  cultivation  of  the  staple  in  the  Southern  States, 
and  that  every  obstacle  should  be  removed.  The  injudicious  cotton  tax, 
that  operates  as  a direct  bounty  to  foreign  production,  should  be  instantly 
repealed,  and  new  capital  should  be  tempted  into  the  production  of  the 
staple  by  the  indispensable  guarantees  of  security  and  political  quiet. 


THE  GROWTH  OP  OGR  CAPITAL  AND  INVESTMENTS. 

In  every  country  where  a high  degree  of  industrial  activity  and 
material  prosperity  prevails,  there  is  continually  going  on  an  increase 
and  accumulation  of  capital ; and  the  laws  by  which  that  increase  is 
governed  have  received  some  attention  from  political  economists,  though 
far  less,  probably,  than  their  importance  deserves.  Of  these  laws,  one 
of  the  best  established  is  that  the  capital  of  any  nation  increases  in 
proportion  as  individual  property  is  protected  by  law  and  as  safe  remu- 
nerative investments  are  easily  accessible  to  all  classes  of  the  com- 
munity. In  Mexico  and  some  of  the  South  American  republics,  property 
of  all  kinds  being  insecure,  capital  increases  very  slowly,  if  at  all ; and 
when  the  insecurity  reaches  a certain  point,  capital  undergoes  an  actual 
diminution,  and  the  country  grows  poorer  every  year.  In  England, 
on  the  contrary,  and  in  this  country,  where  the  central  principle  of 
the  laws  rests  on  the  security  of  person  and  property,  and  where  the 
rights  of  capital  are  fenced  round  with  all  the  safeguards  which  the  wit 
of  man  can  contrive,  wealth  grows  very  rapidly,  and  the  increase  of 
capital  has  surpassed  anything  ever  realized  in  the  history  of  modern 
nations. 

Next  to  the  security  of  property,  one  of  the  most  important  condi- 
tions for  the  increase  of  wealth  is  that  good  investments  shall  be 
easily  accessible  to  all  classes  of  men  who  have  the  ability,  by  frugal 
thrift  and  skillful  ’ industry,  to  amass  a surplus  above  their  wants.  In 
this  respect,  for  some  years  past  we  have  had  an  advantage  over  other 
countries.  It  is  true  that  our  currency  for  three  or  four  years  after  the 
commencement  of  the  war,  was  being  gradually  inflated.  But  the  effect 
of  the  redundant  issue  of  paper  money  was  twofold.  It  acted  in  favor 
of  the  poor  and  of  the  great  masses  of  debtors  throughout  the  country, 
by  enabling  them  to  pay  their  debts  in  a denomination  of  money  of  less 
value  than  that  in  which  they  were  incurred ; and  what  is  of  more  im- 
portance for  our  present  purpose,  it  gave  that  stimulus  to  all  kinds  of 
industry  which  an  abundant  currency  among  an  industrious,  energetic, 
ingenious,  versatile  people  never  fails  to  develop.  The  rapid,  steady 
growth  of  wealth,  and  the  extraordinary  material  prosperity  which  re- 
sulted astonished  our  political  economists,  because  it  was  realized  in 
apparent  defiance  of  some  of  those  general  facts  and  laws  which  they 
had  been  accustomed  to  regard  as  equally  stern  and  unyielding  with  the 
laws  of  gravitation.  Notwithstanding  that  in  the  prodigious  expen- 


1867 


MOUNT  CENIS  SUMMIT  RAILWAY. 


305 


MOUNT  CENIS  SUMMIT  RAILWAY. 

The  line  of  railway  which  has  been  in  the  course  of  construction  for  the  last 
eighteen  mouths  over  this  pass,  and  which  follows  in  the  main  the  great  road  of 
the  First  Napoleon,  was  successfully  traversed  on  the  21st  ultimo  over  its  whole 
length  of  48  miles  by  a locomotive  engine.  A train  composed  of  an  engine  and 
two  carriages  left  the  St.  Michel  station  at  6:30  a.  m.  There  were  present  the 
Duke  of  Yallambrossa ; Mr.  Fell,  the  inventor  of  the  system  , Mr.  Brogden,  a 
director  of  the  company;  Mr.  Brunlees,  the  engineer,  and  his  assistant,  Mr.  Bell; 
Mr.  Blake,  the  agent  of  the  company  ; Mr.  Alexander  and  Mr.  Barnes,  locomo- 
tive engineers;  Signor  Copello,  chief  engineer  for  the  Modane  section  of  the 
tunnel  ; Captain  Beaumont,  R.  E. , Mr.  James  Drogden,  Mr.  Jopling,  Mr.  Mor- 
ris and  Captain  Tyler,  R.  E.,  on  the  part  of  the  British  Government. 

Mr.  Fell’s  system  consists  of  the  application  of  a central  double-headed  rai] 
placed  on  its  side  in  the  middle  of  the  way  and  elevated  about  fourteen  inches 
above  the  ordinary  rails.  There  are  four  horizontal  driving  wheels  on  the  engine 
under  the  control  of  the  engine  driver,  which  can  be  made  by  pressure  to  grasp 
the  central  rail  so  as  to  utilize  the  whole  power  of  the  engine,  and  so  enable  it  to 
work  up  incredible  gradients  without  slipping.  The  carriages,  also;  have  four 
horizontal  wheels  underneath,  which,  with  the  central  rail,  form  a complete  safety 
guard.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  break  there  are  breaks  upon  the  central  rail* 
It  would  appear,  therefore,  impossible  for  the  engine  carriages  to  leave  the  rail  ^ 
where  the  central  one  is  laid. 

The  morning  was  admirably  adapted  for  the  trip,  the  sun  shining  with  great 
brilliancy  upon  the  Alpine  peaks  and  the  numerous  glaciers  which  are  visible  in 
the  different  parts  of  the  route.  After  leaving  the  deep  valley  in  which  St. 
Michel  is  situated,  the  line  passes  by  a gradient  of  one  in  thirty  to  the  Pont  de 
la  Denise,  where  an  iron  bridge  spans  the  river  Arcq  near  the  site  of  that  which 
was  carried  away  by  the  inundations  of  last  year.  As  the  little  train  passed  the 
village  of  Fourrieau,  the  workmen  of  the  Grand  Tunnel  of  the  Alps  turned  out 
en  masse,  and,  as  at  all  other  parts  of  the  route,  they  were  observed  stooning 
down,  and  even  endangering  their  lives  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  unusual 
mechanism  of  the  engine  for  working  on  the  central  rail.  The  first  very  steep 
gradient  of  one  in  twelve  was  seen  in  passing  Modane,  and,  foreshortened  to  the 
view,  appeared  on  the  approach  as  if  impossible  to  surmount;  but  the  engine, 
the  second  constructed  on  this  system,  had  already  proved  equal  to  the  task  on 
the  experimental  line,  and,  clutching  the  central  rail  between  its  horozonta 
wheels,  it  glided  quickly  up,  under  a pressure  of  steam  not  more  than  80  lbs.  to 
the  square  inch,  without  apparent  effort.  The  progress  was  purposely  slow,  be- 
cause no  engine  or  carriage  had  previously  passed  over  the  line,  and  also  to  give 
opportunity  for  examining  the  works.  The  damages  to  the  road  on  which  the 
line  was  chiefly  laid  were  found  to  be  substantially  repaired  by  the  French  gov- 
ernment. The  magnificent  scenery  around,  and  the  waterfall  near  Fort  Sessail- 
lon  were  much  admired,  as  the  sharp  curves  afforded  different  views  while  passing 
on  the  edges  of  the  deep  ravines.  Tiie  train  entered  Lanslebourg  station  under 
a triumphal  arch,  having  accomplished  24  miles  of  distance,  and  attained  an  ele 
vation  of  2,1C0  feet  above  St.  Michel. 


306  GRENVILLE  AND  COLUMBIA  (s.  C.)  RAILROAD.  {Octoher^ 

From  this  point  the  zigzags  of  ascent  commence,  and  the  gradients  over  a dis- 
tance of  four  miles  were  for  the  most  part  one  to  twelve.  Looking  down  from 
the  train  near  the  summit,  as  if  from  a balloon,  four  of  the  zigzags  were  visible 
at  the  same  instant,  to  a depth  of  two  thousand  feet.  The  power  of  the  engine 
was  satisfactorily  tested  in  this  ascent,  and  the  summit  was  reached  under  salvos 
of  artillery  from  an  improvised  battery,  and  amid  the  cheers  of  French  and  Ital- 
ians who  had  gathered  to  welcome  the  Knglish  on  the  frontier.  The  engine  again 
came  to  a stand  under  a triumphal  arch,  at  an  elevation  of  G,700  feet  above  the 
sea.  Flags  of  the  three  nations,  and  a silk  flag  specially  presented  by  Signor 
Ginaoli  to  Mr.  Fell,  waved  over  a sumptuous  breakfast,  also  provided  by  that 
gentleman.  The  hospice,  the  lake,  and  the  plateau  of  the  summit,  surrounded  by 
snow-clad  peaks  and  glaciers,  rising  to  an  elevation  of  from  10,000  feet  to  13,000 
feet  were  passed,  and  the  portion  of  the  descent  commenced  from  the  Grand 
Croix.  The  railway  here  follows  the  old  Napoleon  road,  which  was  abandoned 
long  since  for  diligence  traffic  on  account  of  the  dangers  from  avalanche.  Ma- 
sonry-covered ways  of  extraordinary  strength  had  here  been  specially  provided 
tor  the  railway. 

The  descent  to  Susa  was  a series  of  the  sharpest  curves  and  steepest  gradients 
on  which  the  central  rail  had  been  continuously  laid,  d’he  Valley  of  the  Dora, 
with  Susa  and  the  Convent  of  San  Michel,  and  even  the  Superga  above  Turin, 
visible  for  thirty  miles  in  the  distance,  presented  a magnificent  panorama,  as  the 
train  wound  through  a clear  atmosphere  round  the  mountain  side.  The  confi- 
dence of  the  party  on  a trip  which  would,  under  ordinary  circumstances  have 
been  so  dangerous,  was  manifested  by  their  crowding  round  all  parts  of  the 
engine,  from  which,  under  a feeling  of  the  security  afforded  by  the  central  rail, 
they  thoroughly  enjoyed  the  ever-changing  scenes  as  they  passed  round  the  edges 
of  the  various  precipices.  Susa  was  entered  amid  the  acclamations  of  multitudes 
of  spectators,  and  the  party  adjourned  to  dine  at  the  Hotel  de  France. 

Thus  was  completed  a journey  unexampled  in  its  character  both  as  respects 
the  steepness  of  gradients,  the  elevation  of  the  summit  level,  and  the  difficulty 
with  which  the  curves  and  precipices  were  overcome. 


GRENVILLE  AND  COLUMBIA  (S.  C.)  RAILROAD. 

The  Grenville  and  Columbia  Railroad  is  constituted  as  follows  ; 


miles. 

Main  Zine— Columbia  to  Greenville 143^ 

Branch  Zine— Cokesbury  to  Abbervilie 113^ 

“ “ Belton  to  Andeson 9X  21 


Total  length  of  road  owned  by  Company 164^ 

Blue  Ridge  ER.  (leased)  Anderson  to  Walhalla 33 

Total  length  of  road  operated  by  Company lb7K 


The  fiscal  is  the  same  as  the  calendar  year.  During  the  early  months  of  186G 
the  track  was  incomplete  and  remained  so  until  May  31,  and  it  was  not  until 
August  31  that  the  bridge  over  the  Broad  River  at  Alston  was  restored.  In 
the  meantime  passengers  and  goods  had  been  carried  on  the  Broad  River  between 


THE 


FORTNIGHTLY  REVIEW 


No.  DLXVI.  New  Series,  February  2,  1914. 


THE  BAGDAD  RAILWAY. 

In  1875  the  first  section  of  what  was  known  as  the  Anatolian 
Railway  was  built  by  German  Engineers  to  the  order  of  the 
Turkish  Government.  In  1888  it  was  transferred  to  a German 
company.  In  1899  the  Sultan,  Abdul  Hamid,  granted  to  the 
Emperor  of  Germany,  whom  he  styled  “his  only  friend  in 
Europe,”  the  concession  “for  the  extension  of  the  said  railway 
from  the  Bosphorus,  across  Asiatic  Turkey,  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Shat-el-Arab,^  on  the  Persian  Gulf.” 

This  concession  was  transferred  to  a German  Syndicate,  which 
assumed  the  name  of  “The  Bagdad  Railway  Company,”  and  after 
certain  ruodifications,  it  commenced  business. 

In  1903  the  German  company  made  certain  proposals  to 
England,  Russia,  and  France  to  participate  in  the  construction — 
by  taking  shares  in  the  company. 

Russia  refused,  as  she  believed  it  was  an  aggression  against 
her  spheres  of  influence  in  Armenia  and  North  Persia,  and  her 
frontier  south  of  the  Caucasus.  The  interests  of  France  were 
mainly  financial,  but  the  alliance  with  Russia  compelled  her  to 
act  in  unison  with  her.  England  feared  an  intrusion  upon  her 
interests  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  so  also  refused. 

The  concession  to  the  German  company  was  in  the  following 
terms  : — 

1.  A ninety-nine  years’  lease. 

2.  The  construction  of  the  line  from  Konia,  the  terminus  of 
the  Anatolian  Railway  to  Bagdad,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
Saracen  Caliphate  on  the  River  Tigris,  and  from  thence  to  the 
Persian  Gulf.  The  distance  from  Konia  to  Bagdad  is  900  miles, 
and  from  Bagdad  to  Bassorah,  350  miles. 

3.  The  line  to  be  divided  into  twelve  sections  of  200  kilometres 
each — and  to  be  built  under  so-called  “ Kilometric  Guarantees.” 

4.  The  company  to  receive  an  annuity  per  kilometre  of  11,000 

(1)  The  Shat-el-Arab  is  the  name  of  the  stream,  from  the  confluence  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  above  Bassorah  to  the  Persian  Gulf 

VOL.  XCV.  N.S.  P 


202 


TFIE  l5A(;i)AI)  iJAirAVAY. 


francs  for  construction,  and  4,500  francs  for  working  wli(3n  tlic 
line  was  opened. 

5.  The  ca})italised  value  for  (aicli  of  the  twelve  sections  to  l)e 
calculated  at  54  million  francs,  and  Turkish  4 p(*r  cent,  bonds 
to  be  issued  to  the  company,  before  starting  work  on  nny  given 
section. 

These  boiids,  though  not  worth  their  nominal  value,  have 
nevertheless,  so  far,  been  enough  to  enable  the  company,  not  only 
to  meet  its  expenses,  but  also  to  make  a fair  ])rofit. 

If  Ifussia,  TT’ance,  and  iMigland  decided  to  boycott  the  Ifonds, 
then  the  German  company  could  proceed  only  very  slowly  in 
the  construction.  This  is  what  has  occurred. 

The  line,  so  far,  has  been  built  to  Bnrgulu,  whicli  is  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Taurus  Mountains,  a distance  of  125  miles. 
It  was  opened  in  1904.  Tunnelling  through  the  Taurus  Mountains 
is  proceeding.  It  has  still  to  cross  these  mountains,  and  to  cover 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  distance  to  Bagdad.  The  map  on 
the  next  page  shows  the  alignment,  the  portion  completed,  and 
the  portion  remaining  to  be  built  before  it  reaches  the  Persian 
Gulf. 

Financial  difficulties,  revolution,  the  deposition  of  Sultan  Abdul 
Hamid,  and  the  publication  by  the  new  Sultan,  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  Young  Turks  (the  so-called  Committee  of  Union  and 
Progress),  of  constitutional  government,  have  all  operated  to 
retard  its  progress. 

The  Young  Turks  really  disapproved  of  the  concession,  but 
German  diplomacy,  and  the  natural  leaning  and  good  will  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Turkish  Army  toward  the  German  Government, 
restrained  them  from  annulling  it. 

Since  1903,  when  the  Conservative  Government  rejected  the 
overtures  of  the  Bagdad  Company,  our  relations  with  the  German 
Government  have  been  very  strained.  This  is  indicated  by  the 
following  extracts  from  German  papers  : — 

1.  Die  Post  brands  English  demands  for  control  of  the  Gulf 
terminal  of  the  Bagdad  Eailway  as  “interference  with  the  rights 
of  Turkey,  which  the  Ottoman  Government  cannot,  and  will  not, 
in  any  circumstances  tolerate.  The  Bagdad  Pail  way  is  a Turkish 
line,  crossing  Turkish  territory.  No  State  has  a right  to  demand 
suproTuacy  over  any  section  of  this  work  of  civilisation.  England 
has  no  rigid  in  the  Turkish  Bagdad  Pail  way,  other  than  financial. 
44ie,  railway  is  Turkish,  and  will  I'emain  Turkish,  from  the 
Ik)sph()nis  to  the  Iku’sian  Gulf.” 

2.  44h'  Vossi(‘h.e.  ZeUinu/  accuses  Great  Britain  with  “trying 
to  s(3Ciu'('.  h>i-  herself  rights  of  predominance,  to  the  exclusion  of 
Germany,  whi(di  repn'sents  the  capitalists  concerned  in  the 


THE  BAGDAD  RAILWAY 


203 


Map  SHOwir^c  the  Bagdad  Railway  from 
Haidar.  Pasha  to  Kowett  on  the  Persian  Gulf 


-PorKon  already  CDTistractti  to  Burffulv.  at  thej^oot  the  haavas  MoautaCriSt, 


2 x\v.:::t;:::Tovtionyrom  3u.rgula  loBasra,  to  he.  constructed  hythe  German.  Company^ 

3 Portion ^rom  Basra.  To  iCoweit  ,bythc  British,  Covcrrrment . 
4==saazProposed  British  Line^ram.  MaJiaTnraJitotfhoramabad.  inPerSta... 
5-:fe-^--p-c£Line  toxomicct  Bagdad  yyith  Khanakin. 

6 jumi-ouiv,  Z irie J^rom.  Angora  toKarsJ^or  wh  ich  France  t s apply  in gj'ara  concessio 


204 


THE  BAGDAD  liAILWAV. 


Gemian  poi'tion  oi  the  railway. ” And  adds  that  “other  ways 
and  means  to  solve  the  problem  must  be  lound.’’  J^’iirther,  “tliat 
British  proposals  will  not  be  corjsidered  satisfactory  unless 
Germany  approves  of  them,  and  that  Germany  can,  if  necessary, 
refuse  her  consent  to  the  4 per  cent,  increase  of  Chisloms  duties  ’’ ; 
also  that  '‘the  Wilhchnstrdsse  will  rcpaij  howihug  Street  on  the 
Persuui  Gulj  for  unfrie)idHness  shown  in  the  Moroeco  question.” 
With  regard  to  1003,  it  says  that  “Mr.  Jlalfour  was  not  wholly 
responsible,  but  he  failed  to  resist  the  po[)ular  agitation  aroused 
by  an  ill-informed  Ih'ess.  The  mistake  he  then  made  continues 
to  bring  its  own  punishment  to  the  present  day,  and  it  will  grow 
worse  the  longer  England  delays  to  repair  the  mistake.’’ 

3.  The  Boerse  Courier  says  : “Jf  Great  Britain  fails  to  profit 
by  Germany’s  conciliatory  attitude  with  regard  to  the  Gulf  section 
of  the  railway,  that  section,  like  the  rest  of  the  line,  will  be  built 
without  the  co-operation  of  British  capital.’’ 

4.  The  Kreuz  Zeituncj  says  : “The  British  claim  to  a protec- 
torate over  Koweit  is  unjustifiable,  and  should  be  submitted  to 
the  Hague  Tribunal.” 

5.  The  Berliner  Tagehlatt  says:  “Turkey,  as  the  sovereign 
Power  over  the  whole  region  traversed  by  the  railway,  has  the 
right  to  have  the  first  word  in  the  matter,  also  the  final  decision. 
The  question  whether  Bassorah  or  Koweit  shall  be  the  terminus 
requires  a solution  by  which  Turkish  interests  are  not  threatened. 
Germany  seeks  nothing  more.” 

G.  The  Ahendpost  says  : “British  influence  at  Koweit,  which  is 
the  only  possible  Gulf  outlet  to  the  Bagdad  Railway,  has  hitherto 
proved  a fatal  obstacle  to  this  great  project.” 

7.  The  North  German  Gazette  says  : “It  is  Britain’s  business, 
if  she  has  any  special  wishes  regarding  the  Bagdad  Railway,  to 
formulate  and  submit  them  to  the  only  factors  contractually 
concerned  in  the  undertaking,  namely  Turkey  and  the  Bagdad 
Railway  Company.” 

8.  The  Frankfurter  Zeitung  : “While  people  in  Germany  have 
accustomed  themselves  to  treating  the  Bagdad  Railway  as  an 
exclusively  commercial  alTair,  Englishmen  are  apparently  unable 
to  divest  it  of  the  political  aspect  with  which  it  has  been  artificially 
endowed.  Iniglish  supremacy  in  India,  control  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  Ihe  })retended  protectorate  over  the  Turkish  town  of  Koweit, 
all  serve  as  a,  basis  for  demands  directly  concerning  what  is,  indis- 
piilably,  I’lirkisli  h'.rritory.  1’lie  British  Government  is  urged 
to  d(miand  control  of  the  terminal  section  of  the  railway,  and 
to  make  the  granting  of  this  demand  a.  sine  qua  non  for  future 
friendly  relations  wilh  I'urkey  and  Germany.  That  England 
lays  claim  to  a protectorate  over  Koweit  and  to  a control  of  the 


THE  BAGDAD  RAILWAY. 


205 


terminal  section  of  the  Bagdad  Bail  way  is  an  incontrovertible  fact. 
But  the  question  is  : What  right  has  England  in  connection  with 
the  terminal  of  the  Bagdad  Eailway? 

“No  matter  how  the  Koweit  pretensions  may  be  settled,  no 
sort  of  half,  or  full,  protectorate  would  give  the  English  any 
claim  upon  the  southern  section  of  the  Bagdad  Bail  way. 

“As  soon  as  the  English  Government  applies  the  right  standard 
of  their  own  practical  interests  to  this  question,  they  will  find  the 
Turks  and  Germans  sensible  parties  with  whom  to  deal.” 

9.  The  Frankfurter  Gazette  says  : “The  Grand  Vizier  has  made 
the  important  pronouncement  that  the  construction  of  the  Bagdad 
line  as  far  as  Bagdad  is  an  absolute  necessity,  and  he  was  per- 
sonally, and  irrevocably,  determined  to  carry  this  policy  into 
realisation.  But  in  regard  to  the  final  section,  from  Bagdad  to 
the  Gulf,  an  understanding  was  inevitable ; and  he  pledged  the 
credit  of  the  Government  to  the  attainment  of  a suitable 
settlement.” 

A semi-official  communication  in  the  same  paper  offers  to 
English  people  who  are  nervous  about  the  danger  to  the  Indian 
Empire  the  advice  to  consult  a map,  pointing  out  that  the  distance 
from  Koweit  to  the  Indian  frontier  is  about  the  same  as  from 
Portsmouth  to  Naples.  And  it  hopes  that  the  sound  instincts 
of  Englishmen  will  enable  them  to  overcome  the  political 
Chauvinism  from  which  their  handling  of  the  question  has  hitherto 
suffered.” 

10.  The  F or  d dents  cite  Zeitung  invites  England  to  formulate 
her  wishes  and  demands  regarding  the  final  section  of  the  line, 
and  adds  that  they  will  be  sure  to  receive  friendly  consideration 
on  the  part  of  Germany. 

11.  The  Vossische  Zeitung,  in  an  issue  subsequent  to  the  one 
previously  quoted,  says  : “Any  proposal  which  would  involve 
British  control  of  the  final  section  of  the  Bagdad  line  would , under 
no  circumstances,  be  entertained  by  Germany.  The  agreement 
with  Bussia  enables  Germany  to  override  British  resistance. 
If  England  persists  in  her  demands,  Germany  will  know  how  to 
act,  despite  England. 

“If  Englishmen  would  reckon  up  the  net  profit  which  has 
accrued  from  their  country’s  anti-German  policy  of  recent  years, 
they  will  find  that  the  total  is  m7.” 

As  a sequence  to  the  above  extracts,  I will  quote  what  the 
Tanin,  a Turkish  paper,  says  : — 

“In  1901  Great  Britain  undertook  not  to  occupy  Koweit  or 
to  extend  protection  to  Sheikh  Mubarak.  Turkey  simultaneously 
agreed  not  to  send  troops  to  Koweit,  and  to  respect  the  status  quo. 
Nevertheless,  in  consequence  of  the  project  to  build  a railway 


206 


THE  BAGDAD  BATEWAY. 


from  Bagdad  to  Bassorah,  the  existiug  situatioJi  cannot  continue. 
Moreover,  there  is  a necessity  for  securing  order  in  Mesopotamia.” 

It  adds  : ‘‘As  Turkey  will  respect  the  rights  of  (treat  Britain  if) 
the  Persian  Gulf,  she  hopes,  by  friendly  negotiations,  tc)  obtain 
a favourable  solution  of  the  Koweit  (juestion.” 

1 think  there  is  very  little  doubt  that  the  article  in  the  Tanin 
was  inspired  by  German  di[)lomacy,  and  that  tlie  Turkish  Govern- 
ment has  been  tutored  to  lay  claim  to  a suzerainty  over  the 
Blieikh  of  Kow'eit.  It  is  borne  o\it  by  a further  article  in  tlie 
Vossisclie  ZeitinKj,  to  the  effect  that  ‘‘the  Jhitish  Government 
has  proposed  that  the  four  Powers  chiefly  concerned,  viz., 
England,  Turkey,  Germany,  and  France,  should  each  partici[)ate 
in  the  financing  of  the  scheme,  to  the  amount  of  one  quarter 
of  the  capital  re(juired  ; in  return  for  which  li^ngland  is  willing 
to  admit  the  Turkisli  claim  to  the  suzerainty  over  Koweit.”  It 
appears,  however,  that  the  proposal  of  participation  in  the  financ- 
ing of  the  scheme  emanated  from  Turkey,  and  not  from  England, 
and  was 'to  the  effect  that  Turkey  and  Germany  sliould  each  hold 
30  per  cent,  of  the  shares,  and  England  and  France  20  each. 
As  this  would  have  placed  the  control  of  the  line  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  Turkey  and  Germany,  Pmgland  objected  to  the 
proposal. 

Kow  let  us  examine  the  political  status  of  Koweit.  In  1899, 
when  the  Conservative  Government  w^as  in  power,  and  Lord 
Cranborne  was  the  Under  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs, 
Lord  Curzon,  then  Viceroy  of  India,  concluded  a secret  treaty 
with  the  Sheikh  of  Koweit,  by  which  “the  Sheikh  agreed  not  to 
cede  any  territory  to  third  parties,  and  to  conduct  all  his  foreign 
relations  in  accordance  with  our  wishes.”  This  treaty  bears  the 
date  January  25th,  1899.  Either  the  Sheikh  had  the  power,  or 
he  had  not,  to  make  this  treaty.  It  is  argued  that,  though  he 
was  practically  independent,  as  all  the  Sheikhs  in  those  parts 
are,  he  acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan;  and  that  the 
Crescent,  as  an  emblem  of  the  suzerainty,  floated  over  his  house. 
Ilis  explanation  of  it  was  that  it  was  merely  an  emblem  of  the 
Moslerti  faith,  and  by  no  means  a symbol  of  Turkish  sovereignty; 
and  lhat  he  paid  no  taxes  to  the  Sultan. 

Wlum  Ijord  Morley  was  Secretary  of  State  for  India,  this 
subject  w^ns  discussed  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  this  is  wliat 
b(^  said  on  I be  22nd  of  March,  1911  : — 

“ ^rii(>  |)f)Hiti()ii , UR  Itifl  Majosiy’«  riovornment  found  it  in  Deconibor,  IBO.'), 
wliun  ilioy  asHiinicd  ofllico,  was  that  tlic  concession  of  tlie  Tiagdad  Railway, 
from  Kfjfiia  to  liagdad,  Hassorali,  and  some  indetorininate  point  on  the 
Pi'rsian  (Iiilf,  had  Ixam  grant(‘d  some  years  before.  The  concession  was  not 
oidy  for  I he  main  line,  hut  also  for  certain  brand)  lines,  the  most  important 


THE  BAGDAD  RAILWAY. 


207 


of  which  was  the  line  to  Khanakin,  on  the  Turco-Persian  frontier.  Articles 
appeared  in  the  papers  daily  assuming  that  we  had  a right  there  to  do 
what  w'e  pleased.  But  the  fact  was,  it  was  not  our  soil,  but  belonged  to 
Turkey.  The  Germans  were  there,  because  the  Turkish  Government  had 
given  them  the  right  to  be  there.”  He  understood  that  certain  important 
arrangements  had  been  recently  arrived  at  in  Constantinople,  and  that  they 
were  substantially  as  follows  : — 

“By  arrangements  between  the  Turkish  Government  and  the  German 
Concessionnaires  under  the  Convention  of  1903,  the  Bagdad  Railway  Company 
acquired  the  right  to  build  a line  to  some  point  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  to  be 
determined  thereafter.  Under  Article  12  of  the  Convention,  the  Company 
acquired  certain  preferential  rights  to  construct  branches  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, on  the  coast  of  Syria. 

“Under  the  arrangements  now  arrived  at  in  Constantinople,  his  Majesty’s 
Government  understood  that  the  Company  renounced  their  right  to  the 
section  of  the  raihvay  between  Bagdad  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  also 
their  right  to  construct  a port  at  Bassorah,  on  condition  that  they  received  a 
certain  share  in  any  new  Company — presumably  a Turkish  Company — formed 
to  carry  out  the  parts  of  the  line  which  they  had  now  renounced.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  fulfilment  of  the  terms  of  the  Concession,  the  Company  had 
come  to  an  arrangement  wdiereby  first  their  branch  line  was  to  be  built 
from  Oormanich  on  the  main  line  to  Alexandretta — on  the  Gulf  of  that 
name.  And  secondly,  that  certain  revenues  w'ere  to  be  allocated  to  them, 
in  accordance  with  Article  35  of  the  Concession  of  1903.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  Turkish  Government  had  regained  its  liberty  of  action  regarding 
the  section  of  the  railway  between  Bagdad  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  His 
Majesty’s  Government  now  wished  to  arrive  at  a settlement  which  would 
remove  all  apprehension  that  the  Bagdad  Railway  and  its  terminus  would 
create  diplomatic  friction  betw'een  the  parties  interested.  But  Germany, 
as  the  original  Concession  holders,  would  have  to  be  consulted,  and  her 
agreement  would  be  necessary.” 

Since  the  22nd  of  March,  1911,  when  the  above  speech  was 
delivered,  further  developments  have  been  as  follows  : — 

1.  A correspondent,  writing  from  Constantinople  to  the  German 
paper,  Lokal  Anzeiger,  says  : “The  Porte  has  decided  to  negotiate 
with  Germany  alone  about  the  construction  of  the  Bagdad  Hail  way 
as  far  as  Bagdad.  There  is  to  be  an  exchange  of  views  between 
Turkey  and  Germany  with  reference  to  the  extension  of  the  line 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  on  the  basis  of  these  views  negotiations 
will  be  opened  with  England  and  France.” 

2.  In  furtherance  of  these  views,  the  following  proposals  were 
made  : — 

The  capital  to  be  equally  divided  between  Turkey,  Germany, 
Great  Britain,  and  France.  Each  to  have  equal  participation  on 
the  Board  of  Directors,  the  President  to  be  an  Ottoman,  with, 
however,  one  vote  only.  Regarding  the  branch  railway  to 
Alexandretta,  mentioned  by  Lord  Morley  in  his  speech,  the 
Ministry  of  Public  Works  in  Constantinople,  having  finally 
approved  the  plans  for  the  Mediterranean  port  of  the  Bagdad 


208 


^I'TTE  BAODAI)  RAILWAY. 


Railway  at  AlexaiKlretta,  and  the  l)rancli  line  from  Toprakkide 
to  Alexandretta,  work  on  tlieae  lines  is  being  carried  out. 

ddie  negotiations  regarding  Koweit,  and  England’s  spliere  of 
influence  in  that  State  and  the  Persian  (inlf,  were  temporarily 
suspended  wdien  the  TurcO-Ealkan  War  broke  out.  Itussia  has 
withdrawn  her  opposition,  as  the  result  of  the  meeting  between 
the  Ezar  and  tlie  Kaiser  at  Eotsdam  in  Xovend)er,  1010,  and 
no  longer  desii’es  to  liave  a share  or  any  control  over  the  railway. 
Tlie  reason  for  the  withdraw’al  is  said  to  be  an  arrangement  that 
Germany  will  not  oppose  the  construction  by  Eussia  of  a railway 
in  the  north  of  Persia,  linking  on  to  the  P>agdad  Pailway  at 
Khanikin  on  the  Persian  frontier. 

I really  cannot  see  what  interest,  financial  or  otherwise, 
France  has  got  in  this  matter.  She  certainly  ]:K)ses  as  the  protector 
of  the  Syrian  Christians,  and  has  done  so  ever  since  the  Druses 
and  Maronites  of  Mount  Lebanon  were  at  war  with  each  other 
about  fifty  years  ago  ; but  this  does  not  give  her  any  claim  to 
share  in  the  construction  of  the  Bagdad  Railway.  And  now  that 
her  ally  and  predominant  partner,  Russia,  has  retired,  we  ought, 
if  our  “Entente  Cordiale ’’  is  more  than  a name,  to  get  her  to 
retire  also. 

It  appears  from  the  Paris  papers,  notably  the  Temps  and  the 
Libre  Parole,  that  the  French  Foreign  Office  still  thinks  it  has 
an  interest  in  the  negotiations.  We  ought  to  be  able  to  convince 
it  that  the  continuance  of  this  attitude  only  perpetuates  the 
existing  friction  between  ourselves  and  Germany,  and  prevents 
an  amicable  settlement.  The  question  would  then  concern  only 
Turkey,  Germany,  and  ourselves.  And  with  resolution  and  firm- 
ness, we  ought  to  be  able  to  arrange  that  Germany  should  con- 
struct the  railway  as  far  as  Bagdad,  and  we  from  Bagdad  to  the 
Persian  Gulf.  We  should  strive  to  get  our  protectorate  over 
Koweit  acknowledged  by  the  Sultan  (Germany  has  no  right  to 
object  to  it)  or  under  his  suzerainty.  If  possible,  we  should  try 
to  arrange  matters  amicably,  and  not  be  deterred,  or  intimidated, 
by  bluff  and  bluster.  Our  attitude  must  be  immovable  ; we  cannot 
divide  with  Germany  the  control  of  the  line  between  Bagdad  and 
Koweit.  In  the  words  of  T^ord  Tjansdowne,  spoken  in  1903  : “We 
shoidd  regard  Bie  establishment  of  a naval  base,  or  of  a fortified 
port,  in  the  Persian  Gulf  hy  any  other  Power  as  a grave  menace 
to  our  interests,  and  should  certainly  resist  it  hy  all  the  means 
at  our  disposal.” 

ddie  following  is  the  present  Grand  Vizier’s  statement  on  the 
subject  : — 

“ of  ilio  ConooRsion  fo  u Tiormnn  rompnny,  witli  Icilometric 

in  ])rf'foro7ico  to  an  Enfjlisli  Comj)any,  wliich  was  read}’-  to 


THE  BAGDAD  RAILWAY. 


209 


undertake  the  enterprise  without  such  guarantees,  was  the  work  of  a previous 
Government.  It  would  be  useless  to  criticise  it  now. 

“The  duty  of  the  present  Government  is  to  respect  the  arrangement.  We 
shall  pever  tear  up  the  convention  which  we  have  concluded.  The  State 
has  lost  nothing  through  kilometric  guarantees.  The  prolongation  of  the 
line  has  been  definitely  decided.  The  linking  up  of  Constantinople  and 
Bagdad  will  guarantee  our  future  prosperity.  The  ^6300, 000  a year  which 
the  final  section  to  Bagdad  will  cost  us  is  nothing  beside  the  result  we 
are  determined  to  attain.  We  will  never  abandon  the  scheme.  Regarding 
the  line  from  Bagdad  to  Bassorah,  we  hope  to  conclude  a satisfactory  arrange- 
ment. We  shall  overcome  all  obstacles.  Our  only  aim  is  the  interest 
of  our  Empire.” 

It  will  be  observed  that  he  has  said  nothing  about  the  German 
Company’s  right  to  continue  the  construction  of  the  line  from 
Bagdad  to  tide  Persian  Gulf,  nor  has  he  touched  on  the  claim  of 
Turkey  to  the  suzerainty  over  Koweit. 

Since  the  above  statement  was  made,  a considerable  change  in 
the  demeanour  of  Germany  has  occurred.  Some  people  attribute 
it  to  Lord  Haldane’s  mission  to  Berlin,  followed  by  Lord  Morley’s 
visit;  others,  to  Sir  Edward  Grey’s  firm  attitude,  he  having 
declared  that  it  was  England’s  firm  intention  to  insist  on  our 
rights  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  These  combined  appear  to  have  im- 
pressed Germany  and  Turkey  with  the  conviction  that  England 
cannot  be  trifled  with,  and  that  without  her  adherence  and  whole- 
hearted consent,  the  difficulties  which  exist  at  present  cannot 
possibly  be  removed.  This  is  shown  in  the  more  moderate 
language  now  used  by  the  German  Press. 

In  almost  similar  terms,  the  N orddeutsche , Allgemeine  Zeiiung , 
and  Kolnische  Zeitung  publish  the  significant  statement  that 
“there  is  not  the  least  reason,  political  or  otherwise,  why  English 
money  should  not  be  allowed  to  share  in  the  construction  of  the 
final  section  of  the  line,  the  railway  being  nothing  more  than  a 
route  intended  to  open  up  the  districts  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  at 
present  unapproachable,  to  the  trade  of  all  nations.’’ 

The  Frankfurter  Zeitung  and  the  North  German  Gazette  say  : 
“We  desire  to  call  special  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  name 
of  Koweit  does  not  appear  in  any  form  in  the  Bagdad  Concession. 
The  Bagdad  Company  is  authorised  to  build  the  line  from  Zobeir 
(near  Bassorah)  to  some  point  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  need 
not,  therefore,  be  built  directly  to  Koweit,  although  the  harbour 
of  that  place  has  many  advantages.’’ 

The  North  German  Gazette  further  “assures  England  that 
doubts  regarding  anti-British  preferential  rates  on  the  Bagdad 
line  are  groundless.” 

The  French  paper,  Le  Temps,  remarks  on  this  : “The  English 
Government  will,  no  doubt,  recognise  .Thrkish  sovereignty  at 
Koweit,  on  the  condition  that  the  autonomy  of  the  Sheikh  is 


Map  Showing  Lines  of  Railway  which  Russia  proposes  to  build  in  Persia 


210 


THE  BAGDAD  EAILWAY. 


200  joo  ^oo  sooMiJcs 


THE  BAGDAD  RAILWAY. 


211 


respected,  and  that  English  interests  are  fully  admitted  and  safe- 
guarded.” 

It  is  now  said  that  an  Anglo-Turkish  understanding,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Persian  Gulf,  has  been  arrived  at,  as  follows  : — 

‘‘The  Turkish  Government  recognises  the  British  protectorate 
over  Koweit,  and  concedes  the  eventual  right  of  the  construction 
of  the  line  from  Bassorah  to  Koweit ; that  Bassorah  shall  be 
considered  the  terminus  of  the  Bagdad  Kailway,  and  that  the 
line  shall  be  continued  from  Bagdad  on  the  same  conditions  as 
the  other  sections  of  it. 

‘‘At  least  two  British  delegates  shall  be  appointed  to  the 
Directorate,  in  order  to  supervise  all  transactions,  and  prevent 
discrimination  in  the  treatment  of  goods.” 

Now  let  us  consider  the  agreement  at  which  the  Emperor  of 
Germany  and  the  Czar  of  Russia  arrived,  when  they  met  at 
Potsdam  in  November,  1910. 

By  this  agreement,  as  already  stated,  ‘‘Russia  withdraws  all 
opposition  to  the  construction  of  the  Bagdad  Railway,  on  condition 
that  she  is  allowed  a free  hand  in  the  building  of  railways  in  the 
North  of  Persia.  That  is,  that  Germany  will  raise  no  objection 
to  it.”  And  that  the  ‘‘Bagdad  Railway  Company  will  connect 
at  Khanakin  with  the  projected  Russian  line.” 

I presume  that,  if  our  present  relations  with  Russia  continue, 
the  projected  railways,  from  Baku  on  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Julfa, 
Tabriz,  Enzeli,  Resht,  Kazvin,  Teheran,  and  Meshed  in  the  North 
of  Persia,  and  branch  lines  from  Teheran  to  Astrabad,  and  from 
Tabriz  to  Khanakin — as  shown  on  the  accompanying  map — will 
be  constructed.  Although  they  will  not  pass  through  Turkish 
territory  and  do  not  concern  Turkey,  they  are  a much  greater 
menace  to  our  Indian  Empire  than  the  Bagdad  Railway,  and 
apparently  beyond  our  control.  Meshed,  the  sacred  city  of  Persia, 
is  only  200  miles  from  Herat,  which  is  on  the  boundary  of 
Western  Afghanistan,  and  about  340  miles  from  Merv  in  Russian 
Turkestan.  Russia  has  already  a railway  line  extending  from 
Merv  to  the  borders  of  Afghanistan.  If  we  should  ever  be  at  war 
with  her,  and  this,  owing  to  her  tortuous  policy  and  the  difficulty 
of  our  placing  any  reliance  on  her  diplomatic  methods,  is  very 
probable,  she  would  have  two  lines  of  railway,  by  which  she  could 
throw  large  bodies  of  troops  into  Afghanistan,  and  overthrow  all 
the  forces  that  the  Afghans  might  bring  against  her,  long  before 
we  could  reach  Herat,  which  is  369  miles  from  Kandahar  and  881 
miles  from  Peshawur.  The  Novoye  Vremya  of  December  9th, 
1912,  says,  with  regard  to  Lord  Curzon’s  speech  in  the  House 
of  Lords  : ‘‘It  is  criminal.  Even  England’s  enormous  influence  in 
Asia  would  not  avail  to  put  back  for  a single  day  the  inevitable 


212 


TTTE  RAG  DAD  RAILWAY. 


destiny  of  l^ersia,  if  llussia  detennined  to  l)ring  matters  to  an 
end  tliere.  The  invincible  liritish  Fleet  conld  not  prevent  linssia 
from  occupying  Teheran,  if  she  so  desired.” 

It  does  not  a[)pear  probable,  at  the  present  moment,  that  the 
Ameer  of  Afghanistan  would  agree  to  our  extending  tlie  Scinde- 
Pesliin  ftailway  to  Kandahar,  and  fi'om  Kandahar  to  Herat. 
Even  if  lie  did,  it  would  lake  years,  and  cost  millions  of  money, 
liefore  it  could  he  conijileted.  What  is  there  to  [irevent  Kussia 
from  forestalling  ns,  and  occupying  Herat  on  the  commencement 
of  hostilities? 

It  cannot  lie  too  seriously  impressed  upon  Ikarliarnent  and 
the  Foreign  Oflice  that  our  interests  in  I’ersia  and  the  Persian 
Gnlf  have  been  in  existence  ever  since  the  founding  of  our 
Indian  Empire;  that  Russia’s  interest,  if  at  all  admitted  by  us, 
is,  in  comparison,  of  very  recent  date;  while  Germany’s  interest 
in  Asia  IMinor  and  Asiatic  Turkey  dates  only  from  1888  and  1899. 

Our  entente  with  llussia,  for  which  France  is  responsible,  has 
not  only  created  ill-feeling  in  the  hearts  of  all  the  Mahornedan 
races  thronghont  the  world,  but  has  also  discredited  us  in  the 
eyes  of  Europe.  It  is  openly  talked  about  on  the  Continent  that 
the  war  between  Turkey  and  the  Balkan  States,  with  its  dire 
results,  has  been  due  to  the  intrigues  of  Russia  and  France.  That 
they  were  both  jealous  of  the  influence  which  Germany  had 
acquired  in  the  councils  of  the  Sultan,  and  of  the  concession  for 
the  construction  of  the  Bagdad  Railway.  The  first  step  in  the 
intrigue,  it  is  said,  was  the  instigation  of  the  Young  Turks  (a  great 
many  of  whom  were  educated  in  France,  and  who  formed  a 
large  proportion  of  the  leaders  of  the  army)  to  depose  the  Sultan 
Abdul  Hamid,  and  to  set  up  a constitution.  The  second  step 
was  an  attempt  to  induce  the  new  Sultan  and  the  Young  Turks 
to  cancel  the  Bagdad  Railway  concession,  on  the  plea  that,  owing 
to  his  deposition,  all  the  acts  and  concessions  of  Abdul  Hamid 
lapsed  de  jure  et  de  facto.  But  the  Young  Turks,  and  the  Turkish 
people  generally,  had  for  years  been  in  favour  of  the  railway, 
believing  that  it  would  be  of  great  advantage  in  assisting  them 
to  consolidate  their  military  strength,  and  to  bring  over  large 
bodies  of  fighting  men  from  the  Asiatic  provinces,  and  thus 
enable  them  to  cope  with  the  Balkan  States  in  the  war  which  they 
knew  was  approaching.  The  Balkan  States  had  not  completed 
their  arrangements  when  Montenegro  precipitated  matters  by 
proclnirning  war.  It  is  said,  and  believed,  by  Germans,  Austrians, 
and  Hungarians  that  this  was  done  at  the  instigation  of  Russia. 
We  liave  been  drawn  into  the  negotiations  which  are  now  taking 
f)lace,  although  we  have  no  political  interests  in  the  quanrel. 

An  article  in  a.  French  paper,  TjC  Tempff,  now  states  : “The 


THE  BAGDAD  RAILWAY. 


213 


position  in  the  negotiations  between  Turkey  on  the  one  hand, 
and  England  and  Germany  on  the  other,  in  connection  with  the 
Bagdad  Eaihvay,  is  as  follows  : — Several  months  ago  Turkey  and 
England  arrived  at  an  agreement  with  regard  to  the  Bagdad- 
Persian  Gulf  section  (1)  that  English  capital  was  to  be  represented 
in  the  Bagdad-Bassorah  section  by  two  English  administrators ; 

(2)  that  the  Bassorah-Koweit  section  w^as  not  to  be  constructed ; 

(3)  England  obtained  certain  advantages  in  the  Koweit  region.” 

The  German  Government,  on  being  informed  of  these  negotia- 
tions, declared  that  ‘‘it  by  no  means  considered  the  rights  apper- 
taining to  it  by  virtue  of  the  firman  of  concession  of  the  Bagdad - 
Persian  Gulf  section  had  been  annulled  by  the  concession  of  the 
port  of  Alexandretta.  It  claimed,  therefore,  to  partieipate  both 
in  the  negotiations  and  the  construction  of  the  Bassorah-Koweit 
section  of  the  railway,  or  at  ayiy  rate  to  secure  compensating 
advantages.” 

‘‘The  advantages  it  claimed  were  : A promise  that,  at  the 
financial  conference  in  Paris,  the  representatives  of  Great  Britain 
will  support  those  of  Germany  when  they  ask  that  the  Customs 
surtax  affected  by  the  guarantee  of  the  Bagdad  Eailway  be  main- 
tained, and  renunciation  on  the  part  of  Eyigland  to  construct  a 
branch  starting  from  Mohammirah.  This  matter  is  being  dis- 
cussed with  the  French  Government.”^ 

In  connection  with  it,  let  us  carefully  study  the  announcement 
just  made  in  Parliament  by  Sir  Edward  Grey,  viz.  : — 

(1)  “That  Great  Britain  withdraws  objections  to  German  construction 
of  the  Railway  as  far  as  Bassorah.” 

(2)  ''An  extension  of  the  Railway  from  Bassorah  to  the  Persian  Gulf  mast 
be  conditional  uyon  British  approval." 

(3)  “Two  British  Directors  will  have  seats  on  the  Railway  Board,  as  a 
guarantee  against  differential  rates ; not  that  these  have  ever  been  a subject 
of  grievance  on  the  Anatolian  and  other  German  Railways  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire.” 

(4)  “ Great  Britain  waives  the  idea  of  participation  in  the  construction 
of  the  line.” 

(5)  “The  navigation  of  the  river  up  to  and  beyond  Bagdad  is  a substantial 
British  interest  which  may  be  developed  and  consolidated.”  2 

(6)  “Turkey’s  suzerainty  of  the  Gulf  is  recognised;  and  the  proposed 
agreement  is  direct  between  Great  Britain  and  Turkey,  not  between  Great 
Britain  and  Germany;  but  Turkey  recognises  the  autonomy  of  the  Sheikh 
of  Koweit  at  the  Gulf.” 


(1)  Evidently  the  above  article  has  been  inspired  by  the  French  Foreign  Office. 

(2)  Bagdad  is  on  the  River  Tigris,  190  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Euphrates.  Nothing  is  said  about  the  latter  river,  although  it  is  also 
navigable  almost  up  to  Aleppo. 


'HIM  BAdDAD  RAILWAY. 


21  [ 

(7)  “In  Soutli  Persia  Great  Britain  claims  tlic  right  to  construct  railways; 
and  such  a railway  is  under  survey  t?om  .Mohanimirah  to  Khorainahad.”  ' 

As  we  have  “waived  llie  idea  ol  pariicipatiou  in  ilie  constnic- 
iion  oI  the  Bagdad  line,”  the  riglit  oI  it,  of  course,  will  belong 
solely  to  Germany.  Su[)pose — and  it  is  not  an  in)|>ossible  sn[)- 
position-— that  Itussia  and  Germany  were  at  some  I'litiire  (bite  to 
join  bands,  the  peril  to  oiir  Indian  JAnpire  would  be  very  serious. 

In  the  explanation  given  in  BJ(J8  by  Sir  Edward  Grey  in 
rarliarnent,  in  connection  with  the  treaty  witli  Jvussia  regarding 
spheres  of  intluence  in  I’ersia,  be  said  : “The  main  part  of  the 
agreement  is  not  commercial,  btit  strategical,  and  of  the  strategical 
position  Seistan  is  the  key.  To  have  left  Seistan  within  striking 
distance  of  Jiussia  would  have  been  a real  danger,  and  would 
have  led  to  an  increased  charge  on  fndia  for  extra  defence.” 
No  doubt  this  was  all  quite  true.  But  when  Bussia  has  completed 
her  railway  from  Batoum  and  Baku,  on  the  Black  and  Caspian 
Seas,  to  Meshed — within  striking  distance  of  Herat — the  danger 
to  India  will  be  very  much  greater,  and  very  real. 

A French  paper,  the  Journal,  now  states  that,  in  addition  to 
the  diplomatic  negotiations  relative  to  the  interests  of  Germany 
and  Eussia  in  Turkey  and  Persia,  pourparlers  have  been  opened 
for  floating  a Eussian  loan  of  twenty  million  pounds  in  Berlin  : 
and  that  the  banking  firm  of  Mendelssohns  will  undertake  it. 

I append  a translation  of  an  article  in  the  Berliner  Tagehlatt 
of  December  SQth,  1913,  alluding  to  one  in  the  Tagliche  Rundschau, 
regarding  the  developments  which  have  taken  place  in  this 
matter  : — 

“For  years  this  undertaking  (the  Bagdad  Railway)  has  threatened  to 
become  a bone  of  contention  between  Russia,  England  and  Germany.  The 
German  Government  has  now,  through  its  cleverness  and  tenacity,  succeeded 
in  removing  all  differences,  and  in  bringing  the  line  altogether  into  German 
possession. 

“When  tlie  ‘ Deutscher  Bank’  sought  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  the 
first  concession  for  the  Anatolian  Railway,  that  forerunner  of  the  Bagdad 
Railway,  nearly  twenty-five  years  ago,  the  first  section  of  the  Anatolian 
Railway  was  gi’anted  to  Fi'anco,  as  later  the  section  of  the  present  Bagdad 
itailway  to  tho  Mediterraiiean  (Adana-Merina)  fell  to  an  English  Company. 
At  tli('  pi'(,‘seut  moment  the  completion  of  the  whole  line  from  Constantinople 
to  Bassoi’ah  via,  Bagdad;  fi’om  tho  ]iosj)horus  to  the  Rersian  Gulf;  is 

(1)  It  will  1)0  noticed  in  Gonna ny’s  claims  already  mentioned,  and  underlined 
by  nm,  she  claims  “renunciation  on  the  part  of  England  of  her  claim  to  construct 
It  hrancli  starting  from  Mohanuniiali.”  'riiere  is  therefore,  apparently,  a 
conflict  between  lier  and  Jhtgland  on  tliis  j)oint ; and  she  very  iirobably  thinks 
that  as  she  has  gaiiu'd  hei'  wishes  on  all  other  points,  she  will  succeed  in  this 
one  also.  'I’he  (lovernment  (( h)ns('rvative)  whicli  was  then  in  })ower  is  very 
much  to  blame  for  allowing  her  to  obtain  a,  footing  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  Perhaps 
it  was  in  j'etnrn  for  the  assistance  she  ga,vo  us  at  the  Iferlin  Conference  in  1878, 
icgardijig  which  the  Fail  of  Beaconsfield  declared  that  “he  had  brought  back 
1 eaco  wit  h honour.” 


THE  BAGDAD  RAILWAY. 


215 


secured  by  a Company  controlled  by  the  ‘ Deutscher  Bank  ’ without  English 
or  French  participation.  And  in  three  years’  time  the  Bagdad  Railway  will 
run  from  the  Bosphorus  to  Bassorah,  via  Bagdad,  and  will  be  able  to  convey 
its  passengers  and  goods  to  the  steamers  of  the  Hamburg- America  line.  Not 
only  is  the  main  lino  across  Asia  Minor  secured,  but  also  two  branch  lines, 
stretching  east  and  west — from  Bagdad  past  Khanakin  into  Central  Persia, 
and  from  Aleppo  to  the  Mediterranean,  via  Alexandretta.  In  addition,  three 
forts,  Constantinople-Haidarpasha  on  the  Bosphorus,  Alexandretta  on  the 
Mediterranean,  and  Basra  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  all  bear  witness  to  the 
result  of  German  enterprise  and  capital.” 

In  this  way  will  be  accomplished,  says  the  TdgliclLe  Rundschau , 
a work  in  which  Germany  has  from  the  beginning  invited  the 
participation  of  all  the  Powers,  including  France,  England,  and 
Pussia ; it  will  be  achieved  without  Kussia,  England,  or  France, 
and  in  spite  of  their  opposition. 

Kussia  was  the  first  to  come  to  terms  with  the  Bagdad  Kailway 
— whicli,  though  it  could  not  be  prevented,  could  still  be  delayed — 
in  the  Potsdam  Treaty  of  two  years  ago,  which  brought  about 
the  understanding  between  Germany  and  Kussia,  and  arranged 
that  they  should  share  in  an  extension  from  Bagdad  to  Teheran. 
By  this,  Germany  obtained  the  yield  of  the  rich  petroleum  wells 
on  the  Turco-Persian  border,  and  access  for  her  trade  with 
Persia  itself ; Kussia  gained  access  to  the  Mediterranean  and, 
via  the  Bagdad  Kailway,  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  both  hitherto 
prohibited  by  England. 

England  has  also,  during  the  Balkan  war,  seen  her  way  to 
change  her  Eastern  policy,  and  that  with  regard  to  Germany 
especially.  An  understanding  was  arrived  at  in  the  Anglo-German 
negotiations,  and  an  agreement  was  reached  as  to  the  future 
extension  to  Bassorah  by  the  Bagdad  Kailway  Company,  to  give 
it  its  present  title;  and,  in  addition,  the  completion  of  the 
harbour  of  Bassorah  on  the  Gulf,  by  means  of  an  Anglo-German 
company,  under  a German  board  of  directors. 

Paul  Dehn  reckons  the  Indian  parcel  traffic  over  the  Bagdad 
Kail  way  at  fifteen  trucks  a week,  and  15,000  passengers  per 
annum. 

With  regard  to  shipping  on  the  Tigris,  and  the  African  and 
other  questions,  the  Anglo-German  agreement  shows  a satisfactory 
understanding.  Turkey,  on  her  part,  changes  her  false  position 
in  Koweit  for  the  real  advantage  of  the  consent  of  England  to 
the  increase  of  the  Customs  duties  there,  and  the  employment  of 
them  for  the  Bagdad  Kail  way. 

Finally,  France  also  has  now  made  up  her  mind.  She  was 
originally  invited  to  join,  but  Delcasse  refused,  putting,  as  he 
did,  the  policy  pursued  by  Kussia  before  the  consideration  of  the 
interests  of  the  French  railways  in  Asia  Minor  in  connection 


2L6 


THE  BAGDAD  RAILW  AY. 


with  the  Bagdad  Kailway.  France  now  renounces  all  further 
opposition  to  the  railway,  and  agrees  to  the  increase  in  the  Turkish 
Customs,  and  its  employment  on  the  line. 

She  also  gives  up  all  iidluence  in  the  Bagdad  Itailway  by  return- 
ing to  the  Beutscher  Bank  all  her  shares  (one-third). 

Lc  Temps  is  right  in  saying,  with  resignation,  that  only  one 
settlement  could  be  expected  in  the  future.  There  were  two 
possibilities  : the  admission  of  the  Bagdad  shares  on  the  Bourse, 
or  the  return  of  them  to  the  J )eutscher  Bank.  Jt  is  the  second 
of  the  alternatives  that  has  taken  place. 

With  Kussia  and  l^:ngland  inditferent,  the  French  share  in  tlie 
capital  of  the  raihvay,  a mere  third,  ceased  to  have  any  [)ractical 
influence  on  the  management  of  the  German  undertaking  in 
Asia  Minor.  Therefore,  a settlement  w^as  obviously  necessary. 

This  show  s clearly  that  German  diplomacy , backed  up  by  German 
bluff  and  bluster,  has  gained  its  ends.  It  wall,  no  doubt,  in  time 
squeeze  us  out  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  as  it  succeeded  in  squeezing 
ns  out  of  East  Africa,  where  w^e  surrendered  to  her  country  which 
w’as  ours  by  virtue  of  having  been  explored  by  Speke,  Grant,  and 

Stanley.  _ 

Parliament  alone  should  have  the  power  in  the  making  of 
treaties.  The  Foreign  Secretary  should  be  only  the  medium  for 
presenting  the  necessary  information , 

T.  A.  O’Connor. 


1903] 


The  Forest 


709 


of  a fan  tail  that  looks  to  you  to  be  at 
least  six  inches  across — and  the  current 
slides  on,  silverlike,  smooth,  indifferent 
to  the  wild  leap  of  your  heart. 

Like  a crazy  man,  you  shorten  your 
line.  Six  seconds  later  your  flies  fall 
skillfully  just  up-stream  from  where  last 
you  saw  that  wonderful  tail. 

But  six  seconds  may  be  a long,  long  pe- 
riod of  time.  You  have  feared  and  hoped 
and  speculated  and  realized— feared  that 
the  leviathan  has  pricked  himself,  and  so 
will  not  rise  again  ; hoped  that  his  appear- 
ance merely  indicated  curiosity  which  he 
will  desire  further  to  satisfy ; speculated 
on  whether  your  skill  can  drop  the  fly 
exactly  on  that  spot,  as  it  must  be  dropped ; 
and  realized  that,  whatever  be  the  truth 
as  to  all  those  fears  and  hopes  and 
speculations,  this  is  irrevocably  your  last 
chance. 

For  an  instant  you  allow  the  flies  to 
drift  down-stream,  to  be  floated  here  and 
there  by  idle  little  eddies,  to  be  sucked 
down  and  spat  out  of  tiny  suction-holes. 
Then  cautiously  you  draw  them  across 
the  surface  of  the  waters.  Thiii7ip — thump 
—thump — your  heart  slows  up  with  dis- 
appointment. Then,  mysteriously,  like 
the  stirring  of  the  waters  by  some  invisi- 
ble hand,  the  molten  silver  is  y broken  in 
its  smoothness.  The  Royal  Coachman 
quietly  disappears.  With  all  the  brakes 
shrieking  on  your  desire  to  shut  your  eyes 
and  heave  a mighty  heave,  you  depress 
your  butt  and  strike. 

Then  in  the  twilight  the  battle.  No 
leisure  is  here,  only  quivering,  intense, 
agonized  anxiety.  The  affair  transcends 
the  moment.  Purposes  and  necessities  of 
untold  ages  have  concentrated,  so  that 
somehow  back  of  your  consciousness  rest 
hosts  of  disembodied  hopes,  tendencies, 
evolutionary  progressions,  all  breathless 
lest  you  prove  unequal  to  the  struggle  for 
which  they  have  been  so  long  preparing. 
Responsibility,  vast,  vague,  formless,  is 
yours.  Only  the  fact  that  you  are  wholly 
occupied  with  the  exigence  of  the  moment 
prevents  your  understanding  of  what  it  is, 
but  it  hovers  dark  and  depressing  behind 
your  possible  failure.  You  must  win. 
This  is  no  fish ; it  is  opportunity  itself, 
and  once  gone  it ’will  never  return.  The 
mysticism  of  lo^wer  dusk  in  the  forest,  of 
upper  afterglow  on  the  hills,  of  the  chill 
of  evening  waters  and  winds,  of  the  glint 


of  strange  phantoms  under  the  darkness 
of  cliffs,  of  the  whisperings  and  shoutings 
of  Things  you  are  too  busy  to  identify 
out  in  the  gray  of  North  Country  awe — 
all  these  menace  you  with  indetermi- 
nate dread.  Knee-deep,  waist-deep,  swift 
water,  slack  water,  down-stream,  up- 
stream, with  red  eyes  straining  into  the 
dimness,  with  every  muscle  taut  and  every 
nerve  quivering,  you*  follow  the  ripping  of 
your  line.  You  have  consecrated  your- 
self to  the  uttermost.  The  minutes  stalk 
by  you  gigantic.  You  are  a stable  pin- 
point in  whirling  phantasms.  And  you 
are  very  little,  very  small,  very  inadequate 
among  these  titans  of  circumstance. 

Thrice  he  breaks  water,  a white  and 
ghostly  apparition  from  the  deep.  Your 
heart  stops  with  your  reel,  and  only 
resumes  its  office  when  again  the  line 
sings  safely.  The  darkness  falls,  and 
with  it,  like  the  mysterious  strength  of 
Sir  Gareth’s  opponent,  falls  the  power  of 
your  adversary.  His  rushes  shorten. 
The  blown  world  of  your  uncertainty 
shrinks  to  the  normal.  From  the  haze  of 
your  consciousness,  as  through  a fog, 
loom  the  old  familiar  forest,  and  the  hills, 
and  the  River.  Slowly  you  creep  from 
that  strange  and  enchanted  land.  The 
sullen  trout  yields.  In  all  gentleness  you 
float  him  within  reach  of  your  net. 
Quietly,  breathlessly,  you  walk  ashore,  and 
over  the  beach,  and  an  unnecessary  hun- 
dred feet  from  the  water,  lest  he  retain 
still  a flop.  Then  you  lay  him  upon 
the  stones  and  lift  up  your  heart  in 
rejoicing. 

How  you  get  to  camp  you  never  clearly 
know.  Exultation  lifts  your  feet.  Wings, 
wings,  O ye  Red  Gods,  wings  to  carry  the 
body  whither  the  spirit  hath  already 
soared,  and  stooped,  and  circled  back  in 
impatience  to  see  why  still  the  body 
lingers ! Ordinarily  you  can  cross  the 
riffles  above  the  Half-Way  Pool  only  with 
caution  and  prayer  and  a stout  staff  craftily 
employed.  This  night  you  can — and  do — 
splash  across  hand-free  as  recklessly  as 
you  would  wade  a little  brook.  There  is 
no  stumble  in  you,  for  you  have  done  a 
great  deed,  and  the  Red  Gods  are  smiling. 

Through  the  trees  glows  a light,  and  in 
the  center  of  that  light  are  leaping  flames, 
and  in  the  circle  of  that  light  stand,  rough 
hewn  in  orange,  the  tent  and  the  table 
and  the  waiting  figures  of  your  compan- 


710 


'The  Outlook 


ions.  You  stop  short,  and  swallow  hard, 
and  saunter  into  camp  as  one  indifferent. 

Carelessly  you  toss  aside  your  creel — 
into  die  darkest  corner,  as  thoug^h  it  were 
'unimportant — nonchalantly  you  lean  your 
rod  against  the  slant  of  your  tent,  wearily 
you  seat  yourself  and  begin  to  draw  off 
your  drenched  garments.  Billy  bends 
toward  the  fire.  Dick  gets  you  your  dry 
clothes.  Nobody  says  anything,  for  every- 
body is  hungry.  No  one  asks  you  any 
questions,  for  on  the  River  you  get  in 
almost  any  time  of  night. 

Finally,  as  you  are  hanging  your  wet 
things  near  the  fire,  you  inquire  casually 
over  your  shoulder  : 

“ Dick,  have  any  luck  ?” 

Dick  tells  you.  You  listen  with  appar- 
ent interest.  He  has  caught  a three- 
pounder.  He  describes  the  spot  and  the 
method  and  the  struggle.  He  is  very 
much  pleased.  You  pity  him. 

The  three  of  you  eat  supper,  lots  of 
supper.  Billy  arises  first,  filling  his  pipe. 
He  hangs  water  over  the  fire  for  the  dish- 
washing. You  and  Dick  sit  hunched  on 
a log,  blissfully  happy  in  the  moments  of 
digestion,  ruminative,  watching  the  blaze. 
The  tobacco-smoke  eddies  and  sucks 
upward  to  join  the  wood-smoke.  Billy 
moves  here  and  there  in  the  fulfillment  of 
his  simple  tasks,  casting  his  shadow  wa- 
vering and  gigantic  against  the  firelit 
trees.  By  and  by  he  has  finished.  He 
gathers  up  the  straps  of  Dick’s  creel,  and 


[l8  July 

turns  to  the  shadow  for  your  own.  He  is 
going  to  clean  the  fish.  It  is  the  moment 
you  have  watched  for.  You  shroud  your- 
self in  profound  indifference. 

“ Sacre  1”  shrieks  Billy. 

You  do  not  even  turn  your  head. 

“ Jumping  giraffes  1 why,  it’s  a whale  1” 
cries  Dick. 

You  roll  a blase  eye  in  their  direction, 
as  though  such  puerile  enthusiasm  wearies 
you. 

“Yes,  it’s  quite  a little  fish,”  you  con- 
cede. 

They  swarm  down  upon  you  demand- 
ing particulars,  d'hese  you  accord  laconi- 
cally, a word  at  a time,  in  answer  to  direct 
questions,  between  puffs  of  smoke. 

“ At  the  Narrows.  Royal  Coachman. 
Just  before  I came  in.  Pretty  fair  fight. 
Just  at  the  edge  of  the  eddy,”  and  so  on. 
But  your  soul  glories. 

The  tape-line  is  brought  out.  Twenty- 
nine  inches  it  records.  Holy  smoke,  what 
a fish  1 Your  air  implies  that  you  will 
probably  catch  three  more  just  like  him 
on  the  morrow.  Dick  and  Billy  make 
tracings  of  him  on  the  birch  bark.  You 
retain  your  lofty  calm  ; but  inside  you  are 
little  quivers  of  rapture.  And  when  you 
awake,  late  in  the  night,  you  are  conscious 
first  of  all  that  you  are  happy,  happy, 
happy,  all  through  ; and  only  when  the 
drowse  drains  away  do  you  remember 
why. 

[to  be  continued] 


The  Pan-American  Railway 

By  Charles  M.  Pepper 

Special  Commissioner 


Every  great  enterprise  must  wait 
its  turn.  Especially  is  this  so  if 
it  be  of  an  international  character. 
'The  J^an-American,  or  Intercontinental, 
Railway  project  has  had  a long  wait.  Its 
turn  seems  now  to  be  coming. 

'The  origin  and  conception  of  the  plan 
are  old.  l^'irst  the  dreamer,  musing  on 
waking  the  sleeping  richness  of  continents, 
d'hen  the  statesman  with  imagination,  who 
grasps  the  idea  in  its  bolder  outlines. 
After  him  the  captains  of  industry,  the 
practical  men  of  affairs  who  also  have 
imagination. 

'Die  brf^ad  events  which  are  converging 


and  are  focusing  the  intercontinental  rail- 
way project  as  a measure  of  the  not  remote 
future  are  easily  seen,  though  their  bear- 
ing may  not  yet  be  understood  fully  by 
busy  persons  whose  minds  are  occupied 
in  other  fields.  Among  them  are  the 
changes  of  a political  character  which 
have  come  since  the  results  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War  established  the  interna- 
tional relation  of  the  North  American  Re- 
public to  its  neighbors  on  the  south.  This 
relation  properly  may  be  studied  in  its 
influence  on  industrial  and  commericial 
development. 

'I’hen  there  is  the  coincident  fact  of 


711 


I'he  Pan-American  Railway 


190.^]' 

New  York  striving  successfully  for  suprem- 
acy as  the  money  center  of  the  world. 
Though  it  is  only  dimly  seen  even  by 
those  who  are  the  strategists  and  generals 
in  this  campaign,  the  increased  prestige 
of  New  York  inevitably  will  bring  the 
financing  of  future  Central  and  South 
American  operations  there.  The  $500,- 
000,000  American  gold  which  has  gone 
into  Mexico  has  overflowed  naturally  in 
that  country  into  railway-building,  and  it 
is  a simple  process  for  it  to  flow  on  south 
with  the  geographical  current. 

A final,  determinate,  and  positive  factor, 
and  one  which  gives  promise  of  the  earli- 
est results,  is  the  construction  of  the 
isthmian  canal.  With  this  Government 
enterprise  under  way,  there  is  the  cer- 
tainty of  private  projects  for  exploitation 
and  development,  and  of  these  railwa3^s 
on  either  side  of  the  canal  reaching  out 
into  Central  America  and  into  Colombia 
are  sure  to  be  the  outcome.  They  will 
form  links  in  the  Pan-American  route. 

With  this  uriderstanding  of  the  con- 
trolling conditions  and  circumstances,  it  is 
well  to  look  to  the  actual  groundwork  for 
the  intercontinental  trunk  line  which  may 
make  it  possible  to  go  by  rail  from  New 
York  or  San  Francisco  to  Buenos  Ayres. 
The  period  of  public  receptiveness  for  the 
gigantic  plan  has  come.  Thirty  years 
ago  and  more  a United  States  consul  in 
South  America,  Hinton  Rowan  Helper, 
began  the  agitation  for  a three  Americas’ 
railway.  Others  also  took  up  the  idea. 
When  James  G.  Blaine’s  dream  began  to 
take  form  and  the  First  International 
Conference  of  American  States  was  held 
in  Washington  in  1889-90,  the  Pan-Ameri- 
can railway  project  was  strongly  urged  by 
him.  To  his  mind  it  was  a leading  ele- 
ment in  the  policy  of  which  he  was  the 
exponent.  Among  the  delegates  of  the 
United  States  to  that  Conference  were 
former  Senator  Henry  G.  Davis,  of  West 
Virginia,  a practical  railway-builder,  and 
Andrew  Carnegie.  The  idea  appealed 
to  them  as  it  did  to  Mr.  Blaine,  and  prob- 
ably in  its  industrial  and  commercial 
aspects  even  more  than  to  the  great  Sec- 
retary of  State. 

This  Conference  adopted  a series  of 
strong  resolutions  favoring  the  building 
of  the  intercontinental  railway,  and  as  a 
first  step  recommended  an  international 
survey.  President  Harrison,  in  full  sym- 


pathy with  Mr.  Blaine,  approved  the 
project  as  vast  but  practicable,  and 
recommended  to  Congress  the  appropria- 
tion necessary  for  this  purpose,  w.hich 
was  made.  This  fund  was  supplemented 
by  the  various  governments. 

With  this  authority,  three  corps  of 
engineers  were  placed  in  the  field  under 
the  direction  of  a commission  of  which 
Mr.  A.  J.  Cassatt,  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  was  chairman.  The  surveys 
were  made  under  the  immediate  supervis- 
ion of  Mr.  William  F.  Shunk,  eminent  in 
his  profession.  The  results  were  embodied 
in  a series  of  reports  which  covered  the 
territory  from  the  northern  border  of 
Guatemala  and  along  the  Andes  to  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public. Estimates  also  were  made  for 
projected  surveys  and  connections  with 
the  railway  systems  of  Brazil  and  Para- 
guay,  as  well  as  for  a branch  across  from 
Colombia  to  Venezuelan  seaports^  Fur- 
thermore, the  route  was  mapped  out  for  a 
branch  to  the  Colombian  port  of  Cartagena 
on  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

The  principals  in  this  international 
survey  modestly  spoke  of  their  work  as  a 
railway  reconnaissance.  It  was  more. 
Its  technical  value  was  unquestioned. 
The  exposition  of  the  engineering  difficul- 
ties was  explicit  enough  to  furnish  those 
who  might  want  to  doubt  with  grounds 
for  their  doubts,  but  among  experienced 
railway -builders  there  were  few  to  question 
the  conclusions  reached  by  the  survey 
corps.  These  conclusions  were  that  no 
engineering  obstacles  existed  which  could 
not  be  overcome,  and  that  the  cost  of 
construction  would  be  reasonable  enough 
to  justify  the  enterprise  from  the  com- 
mercial standpoint.  Nothing  led  to  the 
belief  that  the  engineering  problems  of  the 
Andes  which  are  yet  to  be  solved  were 
greater  than  those  which  had  been  solved 
by  Henry  Meiggs  in  Peru.  The  justifica- 
tion of  this  international  survey  is  shown 
in  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  followed 
in  actual  railway  construction,  and  also 
as  the  basis  for  supplemental  and  inde- 
pendent reconnaissances  by  private  enter- 
prise. The  published  volumes,  in  both 
the  technical  and  the  general  information 
which  they  give,  are  convincing  literature 
of  the  feasibility  and  utility  of  a Pan- 
American  intercontinental  trunk  line. 

When  the  Second  International  Ameri- 


712 


The  Outlook 


[18  July 


can  Conference  met  in  Mexico  in  the 
winter  of  1901-02,  the  intercontinental 
railway  was  a leading  theme.  Reports 
were  made  by  the  delegates  of  the  differ- 
ent countries  of  their  existing  systems 
and  of  actual  and  projected  railway  con- 
struction. These  reports  were  a tonic. 
'They  showed  that  the  international  survey 
in  several  instances  was  being  used  as  the 
basis  for  railways  under  construction,  and 
in  other  instances  it  was  being  tested  for 
variations  and  branch  feeders  which 
might  prove  useful  in  the  development  of 
natural  resources.  Jt  was  shown  that  the 
Mexican  system  was  almost  complete,  and 
that  the  time  was  not  far  off  when  New 
York,  Chicago,  or  San  Francisco  would 
be  in  direct  communication  by  rail  with 
the  heart  of  Central  America.  Other 
information  told  how  the  gaps  were  being 
closed  in  South  America. 

Since  these  reports  were  made,  the  line 
from  Cordoba,  near  Vera  Cruz,  has  been 
completed  to  a junction  with  the  Tehuan- 
tepec isthmian  railway,  and  the  Mexican 
(jovernment  is  pushing  the  construction 
of  the  Pan-American  line  from  San  Geron- 
imo  south  towards  the  Guatemalan  bor- 
der. When  this  work  is  a little  further 
advanced,  the  Guatemalan  Government 
will  take  steps  to  close  up  the  gap  of  thirty 
miles  necessary  to  bring  its  railway  system 
to  the  frontier  of  Mexico.  American 
interests  identified  with  the  two  trunk 
lines  which  enter  the  United  States  through 
the  gateways  of  El  Paso  and  Laredo 
already  are  reaching  out  for  the  traffic 
which  may  be  had  when  this  Central 
American  connection  is  established. 

The  Government  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public has  pushed  the  building  of  its  rail- 
way lines  from  Jujuy,  formerly  the  north- 
ern terminus,  till  they  are  now  close  to 
the  boundary  of  Polivia,  and  Bolivia  also 
is  encouraging  the  extension  of  its  system 
south  along  the  route  of  the  interconti- 
nental survey  .so  as  to  connect  with  the 
Argentine  .system.  Chili,  which  has  a 
most  extensive  railway  network,  is  en- 
couraging the  trams-Andean  project  that 
will  bring  Santiago  into  througli  rail  con- 
nection with  Buenos  Ayres.  J^eru  is  also 
having  an  era  of  railway-building,  some 
actual,  more  in  prospect.  By  the  end  of 
the  j)re.sent  year  it  is  likely  that  the  gaps 
between  New  York  and  Buenos  Ayres  on 
the  intercontinental  route  will  not  aggre- 


gate more  than  4,700  miles,  as  against 
5,200  miles  when  the  last  reports  were 
made. 

4'he  second  American  C.’onference  took 
practical  steps,  not  only  to  conserve  what 
had  been  done,  but  to  encourage  progress 
along  definite  and  clearly  marked  lines. 
It  adopted  a series  of  recommendations, 
among  others  one  that  a permanent  com- 
mittee be  appointed  and  that  the  United 
States  be  invited  to  initiate  measures  for 
sending  representatives  to  the  various 
countries  to  further  the  common  aspira- 
tion for  building  the  intercontinental 
railway.  The  permanent  Pan-American 
Railway  Committee  thus  designated  is 
composed  of  Henry  (i.  Davis,  of  West 
Virginia  ; Andrew  Carnegie,  of  New 
York  ; Manuel  de  Aspiroz,  Ambassador 
from  Mexico  ; Manuel  Alvarez  Calderon, 
Minister  from  Peru;  and  Antonio  Lazo 
Arriaga,  Minister  from  Guatemala.  Mr. 
Davis  was  a delegate  to  the  Conference 
held  in  Mexico.  The  headquarters  of  the 
Committee  are  in  Washington. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States,  at 
its  last  session,  authorized  the  appoint- 
ment of  a Special  Commissioner  to  carry 
out  the  recommendations  of  the  Mexican 
Conference  with  regard  to  the  Pan-Amer- 
ican Railway.  The  President,  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  made 
the  appointment,  and  instructions  have 
been  issued  to  the  diplomatic  and  con- 
sular representatives  of  the  United  States 
to  co-operate  with  the  Special  Commis- 
sioner. The  Ministers  of  the  various 
Governments  of  the  Latin-American  coun- 
tries accredited  in  Washington  also  have 
taken  measures  to  insure  the  success  of 
the  mission.  The  Commissioner  will  visit 
the  capitals  of  all  the  countries  to  the 
south  of  the  United  States. 

This  is  the  status  of  the  subject  as  it 
exists  to-day.  No  illusions  cloud  it.  The 
broad  fact  is  that  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  and  the  Governments  of 
the  other  Republics  are  disposed  to  work 
in  unison,  and  with  this  co-operation  and 
encouragement  the  links  in  the  Intercon- 
tinental American  Railway  gradually  may 
be  welded  together.  On  the  part  of  the 
Central  and  South  American  countries 
there  is  the  basic  notion  of  affirming  their 
own  unity  by  the  closer  connection  which 
railway  communication  establishes.  There 
is,  moreover,  the  substantial  advantage 


1903] 


713 


The  Pan-American  Railway 


which  comes  from  the  exploitation  of 
their  natural  resources  and  the  develop- 
ment of  their  commerce.  Railroads  are 
built  from  many  motives.  They  live 
by  the  traffic  which  they  develop  and 
create. 

In  a general  way,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  accurate  information  with  respect  to 
the  existing  systems  of  Central  and  South 
American  railroads,  the  lines  projected, 
the  resources  which  are  awaiting  develop- 
ment by  further  building,  the  code  of 
laws  under  which  the  railways  are  oper- 
ated, the  special  inducements  for  foreign 
capital  in  the  form  of  concessions,  sub- 
sidies, land  grants,  guarantees  of  interest 
and  principal  of  bonds,  if  presented  under 
the  sanction  of  official  statements,  will 
have  a direct  interest  for  the  overflowing 
American  capital  which  within  a few  years 
will  begin  to  turn  southward  in  search  of 
greater  returns  than  it  gets  at  home. 

Without  reflecting  on  their  ignorance, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  American  people 
know  little  of  the  existing  South  Ameri- 
can railways  and  less  of  the  projects  and 
possibilities.  They  do  not  know  how  the 
Brazilian  lines  are  largely  the  work  of 
Brazilian  engineers  ; how  near  the  little 
inland  river-bordered  Republic  of  Para- 
guay is  to  joining  its  line  with  the  Argen- 
tine network  ; how  complete  are  the  sys- 
tems of  the  Argentine  Republic  and  of 
Chili,  and  how  near  realization  is  the 
trans-Andean  project. 

Kindred  to  this  main  subject  of  the 
Pan-American  Railway  is  the  question  of 
river  communication.  It,  too,  is  a vast 
subject,  yet  is  thoroughly  practicable. 
Those  who  would  understand  the  full 
scope  of  connecting  the  intercontinental 
trunk  line  by  means  of  branches  with  the 
inland  waterways  of  South  America  should 
read  the  report  made  to  the  Mexican 
Conference  by  the  distinguished  Colom- 
bian, General  Rafael  Reyes.  He,  with 
his  brothers,  Henry  and  Nestor,  both  of 
whom  perished  in  the  work,  explored  the 
greater  part  of  the  Amazon  and  its  afflu- 
ents. 

“ The  extension  of  the  territory  that 
these  rivers  irrigate,”  says  General  Reyes, 
“ is  more  than  4,000,000  square  miles, 
which  are  to-day  virgin  soil  and  which  are 
offered  to  commerce  and  to  human  indus- 
try.” In  his  intensely  interesting  and 
graphic  account  he  gives  a most  compre- 


hensive idea  of  the  course  which  an 
American  traveler  might  follow  after 
going  from  New  York  to  Buenos  Ayres 
by  rail.  This  would  take  the  traveler  on 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  the  Parana  to  the 
Amazon,  and  through  its  affluents  into 
Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Ecuador  ; then  to  Co- 
lombia and  to  Venezuela  through  the 
branches  of  the  Orinoco,  and  back  to  the 
Amazon. 

Compared  with  the  great  transconti- 
nental routes  the  Pan-American  Railway 
project  is  not  wonderful.  Now  that  pas- 
sengers may  take  their  little  journey  to 
Moscow,  and  then  proceed  across  Siberia 
to  Port  Arthur  or  Vladivostok,  reaching 
the  Pacific  in  less  than  eighteen  days,  the 
trip  from  New  York  to  Buenos  Ayres 
should  be  included  in  future  itineraries. 
It  is  true  that  instead  of  an  autocratic 
government,  with  cogent  military  and 
political  reasons  for  building  a vast  rail- 
way line,  the  Pan-American  Railway  re- 
quires the  co-operation  of  many  govern- 
ments. If  requires  also  the  confidence 
which  these  must  inspire  on  the  part  of 
private  capital.  But,  instead  of  costing 
$400,000,000,  with  perhaps  an  additional 
$200,000,000  to  be  expended  within  a 
period  of  five  or  six  years,  the  Pan-Amer- 
ican links,  according  to  the  estimates  of 
the  engineers,  can  be  brought  together 
for  less  than  one  total  expenditure  of 
$200,000,000.  It  may  be  said  that  each 
of  the  Central  and  South  American  coun- 
tries has  the  same  political  reason  for 
completing  within  its  own  links  a railway 
system  that  the  Czar  of  Russia  had  for 
constructing  the  trans-Siberian  line.  Be- 
yond this  is  the  common  interest  which 
will  be  promoted  by  a trunk  line  and 
feeders  joining  three  continents.  Railway 
development  means  commerce,  and  com- 
merce is  civilization.  The  mightiest  fac- 
tor in  South  American  civilization  will  be 
railroad  communication. 

The  Pan-American  Railway  idea  has  the 
support  of  enthusiasts,  but  of  enthusiasts 
who  have  behind  them  the  record  of 
achievement.  It  is  these  achievements 
that  give  encouragement  to  the  younger 
generation,  who  also  may  catch  some  of 
their  enthusiasm.  When  Mr.  Carnegie 
and  Mr.  Davis,  and  men  of  similar  persist- 
ent purpose,  leave  the  doubters  to  discuss 
the  obstacles,  and  give  the  indorsement 
of  their  wide  practical  experience  to  the 


714 


The  Outlook 


[18  July 


general  plan,  others  safely  may  follow 
them. 

There  are  further  measures  which 
preserve  the  continuity  of  the  idea.  'Jdie 
second  International  American  Confer- 
ence, besides  appointing  a permanent 
Pan-American  Railway  Committee,  pro- 
vided that  at  a future  date  an  assembly 
be  called  of  authorized  representatives  of 
all  the  Republics  of  this  hemisphere 
interested,  for  the  purpose  of  perfecting 
a convention  to  arrange  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  proposed  intercontinental 


railway.  It  also  provided  for  the  holding 
of  a third  International  Conference  within 
a few  years,  when  the  work  that  has  been 
done  towards  carrying  out  its  recommenda- 
tions may  be  reviewed,  and  fresh  impetus 
be  given  the  general  policy  of  drawing 
the  nations  of  America  into  closer  rela- 
tion. It  is  almost  needless  to  mention 
the  sympathetic  interest  which  President 
Roosevelt  and  Secretary  Hay  have  shown 
in  this  subject,  of  which  the  Pan-American 
Railway  is  one  of  the  most  important 
elements. 


The  Heart  of  the  Dream 

By  Katharine  Holland  Brown 


“ r"|  NHIS  is  the  way.”  Tom  clutched 
I her  arm  with  a lean,  eager  hand, 
-i-  Harriet  looked  up  at  him,  keenly 
anxious.  From  New  York  to  southern 
Illinois  had  been  a long  ride  for  a man 
just  up  from  pneumonia.  She  put  up  her 
hand  and  stroked  his  gray  young  head. 

“ Hurry  slower,  Tom.  It  has  waited 
for  you  twenty  years.  Let  it  keep  on 
waiting  a minute  longer.” 

“Just  like  a girll”  Tom’s  big-boy 
laugh  rang  challenging  music  through  the 
sleepy  orchard.  Harriet’s  cheek  burned 
to  rose.  When  one  has  married  at  thirty, 
petting  comes  not  amiss,  even  after  eight 
wedded  years.  “ So  you’re  jealous  ! Jeal- 
ous of  the  poor  little  brier-patch  my  youth 
lies  buried  in  1 I always  did  suspect  it.” 

“ I’m  jealous  of  every  rock  and  acorn 
and  fence-rail  on  the  place  1”  snapped 
Harriet,  chin  aloft.  “ You’ve  been  telling 
me  of  that  wonderful  woods,  and  the  pas- 
ture, and  the  big  brook  where  you  learned 
to  swim,  ever  since  we  were  married,  and 
you’ve  sighed  and  languished  for  them 
till  I’ve  wanted  to  come  out  and  cuff  the 
I )ryad’s  ears.  The  hussy  1 To  keep  you 
tied  to  her  apron-strings  all  these  years  1” 

“ It  was  a good  long  string,  and  I had 
no  end  of  sea-room.”  Tom  pinched  her 
cheek,  then  laughed  again  at  her  face  of 
reproach.  “ 'I'liere’s  not  even  a chip- 
munk tf)  see  us,  child.  'Pliis  isn’t  Broad- 
way. (Jome,  let’s  run  for  it.” 

A cliill  of  foreboding  swept  her  lieart. 
“ 'J’om  1”  She  f:aught  his  wrist  and  lield 
him  back,  all  lof)  easily.  “Have  you 
thought  mayl)e  it  won’t  be  the  same?” 


“Oh,  but  Jim  Burroughs  was  here  last 
year,  on  his  way  through  from  California  ; 
and  he  said  it  hadn’t  changed,  not  a leaf 
nor  a twig.  Don’t  croak,  Harry.  Yes,  I 
know ; the  town  is  awful.”  He  swept 
East  Clarkesville  with  a fling  of  scorn. 
“ Poor  Sis,  you  thought  you  were  coming 
to  classic  vales  and  rural  shades,  and  all 
that,  didn’t  you?  And  you  found  brick 
walks  and  automobiles,  and  all  the  girls 
wearing  Colonial  shoes  by  mail  order, 
with  gilt  buckles,  and  blue  ribbon  roses 
in  their  hair,  just  like  the  society  leaders 
up  in  Chicago.  It’s  too  bad.  But  the 
real  place  will  make  up  for  it.  Ah,  it  is 
a real  place,  Harry.  You’ll  see!” 

He  scrambled  over  the  low  worm  fence, 
then  helped  her  dutifully  from  rail  to  rail, 
with  serious  regard  for  her  crisp  ruffles. 
Their  way  led  past  the  orchard  down  a 
cool  shaded  road,  all  snow- flecked  with 
clover,  then  up  the  railroad  embankment, 
steep  and  glaring  in  the  high  spring  sun. 
Harriet  trod  the  hot  sand  with  wary  steps ; 
these  were  her  best  shoes,  and  she  quailed 
befoie  the  thought  of  scuffing  them.  Yet 
her  eyes  followed  her  husband ; her 
breath  caught  sharply  when  he  stumbled 
once  and  wavered  a moment  before  he 
won  his  balance  again.  It  was  so  hard 
not  to  help ! 

“ It’s  right  across  there.”  Tom  waited 
for  her  and  pulled  her  free  hand  into  his 
own,  tiien  dragged  her  on  down  the  em- 
bankment. He  laughed  out,  nervously, 
'rransparent  color  brimmed  the  hollow  of 
his  clieek.  “ You’re  a good  girl,  and  I’m 
a greedy,  to  haul  you  out  here  on  our 


353 


Progress  of  English  Railways, 

machinery  is  capable  of  being  applied  to  any  of  the  present  packet-ships  without 
any  serious  suspension  of  their  operation,  or  any  injurious  expenditure.  If  the 
experiment  about  to  be  made  shall  therefore  be  attended  with  that  success  which 
we  confidently  anticipate,  a brief  period  will  be  sufficient  to  convert  the  entire 
fleet  of  packet-ships  between  New  York  and  Britain  into  steam-liners— uniting 
in  the  expedition,  certainty,  and  regularity,  with  all  their  present  capabilities  for 
commerce  and  cargo.” 


Art.  VIII.— PROGl^SS  OF  ENGLISH  RAILWAYS  : 

THEIR  COST,  VALUE,  AND  DIVIDENDS. 

Herapath’s  railway  journal,  presents  some  interesting  facts  relative 
to  the  cost,  and  astonishing  travel  and  traffic  on  the  railways  in  England. 
There  are  already  some  2,000  miles  of  railroad  in  Great-  Britain  comple- 
ted, principally  in  England  and  Scotland,  and  but  few  in  Ireland.  These 
roads  cost,  on  the  average,  about  £30,000,  ($150,000,)  per  mile,  or 
$300,000,000,  and  yield  an  average  income  of  about  5 per  cent.  Fourteen 
of  the  principal  railways,  1,367  miles  in  length,  have  cost  £43,077,348, 
or  £31,512,  ($175,600,)  per  mile,  and  are  100  per  cent  above  par. 

By  a parliamentary  report,  it  appears  that  at  the  last  session,  112  rail- 
way charters  were  passed.  The  capital  and  loans  authorised,  form  a total 
of  £58,452,000,  and  a length  of  2,847  miles.  During  the  previous  ses- 
sion, 1844,  thirty-one  bills  for  819  miles  of  railway  were  passed,  the  author- 
ized capital  for  which  was  £11,761,717 ; loans  £3,920,570 — together, 
£15,682,287 — consequently,  the  actual  expenditures,  £60,000,000,  with 
the  present  authorized  railways,  £74,136,287,  will  require  the  expenditure 
of  the  round  sum  of  $670,000,000.  That  an  estimate  may  be  formed  of 
the  immense  cost  and  travel  of  some  of  these  roads,  it  is  stated  that  the 

Miles.  Cost.  Per  mile.  In  dollars. 


London  and  Blackwall, Sf  jC1,078,851  iJ287,093  1,435,465 

London  and  Greenwich, 3|  1,031,968  267,270  1,336,350 


Passengers,  6,000,000  annually. 

On  this  cost,  the  first  paid  a dividend,  the  last  year,  at  the  rate  of  36^?  per 
share,  or  about  If  per  cent,  and  the  Greenwich  5dSf  or  near  three  per 
cent,  for  the  last  twelve  months. 

The  most  profitable  road  in  England,  is  the  Stockton  and  Darlington, 
It  cost  £2,000,000 — $10,000,000,  for  43  miles,  and  netts  its  stockholders 
in  regular  dividends,  15  per  cent  per  annum,  derived  principally  from  the 
carrying  of  upwards  of  800,000  tons  of  coal  anually,  and  is  £250  for  £100. 

That  an  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  cost,  travel,  and  traffic,  over  some 
of  the  English  roads,  we  take  the  following  from  the  half-yearly  returns 
of  the  Great  Western,  extending  119^  miles  from  London  to  Bristol,  with 
which  are  connected  102  miles  of  branches.  The  whole  was  completed 
at  an  outlay  of  £7,455,690.  The  Great  Western  alone,  with  motive  power 
and  station-houses,  cost  £6,746,500  ; of  this  amount  the  following  are  some 
of  the  principal  items.  They  must  astonish  our  American  readers,  par- 
ticularly the  legal  and  parliamentiary  expenses  to  procure  the  charter, 
engineering  and  land  damages. 

VOL.  XIII. NO.  IV. 


23 


354 


Progress  of  English  Railways. 


Expenses  to  proenre  charter, X8n,43r> 

Expenses  of  parliament, 27,048 

Law  expenses  and  conveyancing, 82,443 


Total  to  procure  charter,  and  law  expenses,.  XI 98,927 

Land  and  compensation, 380,641 

Land-valuers,  purchasing  land,. 20,003 

Engineering,  surveyors,  &c., 156,800 

Grading  for  superstructure, 3,800,641 

Permanent  way  superstructure,  and  rails, 1,121,815 

Locomotive  engines,  cars,  &c., 547,078 

Office  expenses,  salaries,  miscellaneous, 516,595 


Cost  In  dollnrs  per  mOc, 
for  VM  miles,  in  round 
numl)ers. 


XI, 6.58 
3,172 

$8,292 

15,860 

166 

H33 

1,306 

6,523 

31,672 

158,360 

9,348 

46,740 

4,558 

22,790 

4,304 

21,520 

From  this  table,  it  will  be  perceived,  the  expenses  in  parliament  to  pro- 
cure a charter,  with  law  expenses,  cost  $8,292  per  mile ; engineering, 
$6,533 ; cost  of  land  for  road-bed,  or  right  of  way,  $15,860  per  mile — 
a sum  that  will  construct  a good  railway  in  the  United  States  ; the  grading 
and  superstructure,  cost  the  inconceivable  sum  of  £4,022,456,  or  equal 
to  $205,100  per  mile.  The  whole  cost  $32,732,500,  or  $272,770  per 
mile. 


The  last  semi-annual  dividend  to  July  1,  1845,  was  4 percent,  or  8 per 
cent  per  annum.  The  news  of  this  dividend  was  carried  from  Bristol  to  the 
London  stock-holders  in  two  hours  and  thirty-five  minutes  or  at  the  rate 
of  45  miles  per  hour.  The  usual  time  to  Exeter,  195  miles — Express 
line — is  four  and  a half  hours.  The  gross  receipts  for  six  months  were 
as  follows : — 


From  passengers, X285,311 

mails, 32,314 

merchandise  and  parcels, 111,422 

miscellaneous,  rents,  &c., 4,249 


X433,296 

Expenses, 153,367 

Nett, X279,829 

The  number  of  miles  travelled  the  last  year  was  70,862,510.  The 
passengers  carried,  1,998,088  ; average  daily,  5,462.  The  gross  receipts 
for  six  months  over  this  road,  is  greater  in  amount  than  all  the  tolls  received 
the  last  year  on  all  the  New  York  state  canals,  with  the  salt  and  auction 
duties  included. 

The  half-yearly  report  of  the  London  and  Birmingham  railway,  1121 
miles  up  to  July  1,  1845,  declares  a semi-annual  dividend  of  5 per  cent, 
or  10  per  cent  per  annum  on  a cost  of  £2,637,753.  This  road  for  1121 
miles,  shows  double  the  receipts  per  annum,  compared  with  the  canals  of 
New  York,  of  674  miles  in  length.  The  operations  of  the  last  half  year 
exhibit  an  increase  of  traffic,  both  in  passengers  and  goods,  and  a consid- 
erable excess  of  receipts  over  the  corresponding  period  of  1844,  not- 
withstanding the  large  reductions  which  have  since  been  made  in  the  rates 
and  fare  of  this  company,  amounting,  on  an  average,  in  pence  and  deci- 
mals. per  mile, 

1844.  1845. 

Passengers 2,609  1,818 

Freight,  tons, 2,816  2,606 

The  total  mileage  of  passengers  was  35,758,260  during  six  months  in 
1845,  against  24,064,979,  the  corresponding  months  of  1844,  or  57  per 
cent  increase.  The  total  mileage  of  goods  was  9,350,718  tons  against 
6,929,885,  being  an  increase  of  35  per  cent. 


355 


Progress  of  English  Railways. 


The  gross  receipts  6 months  in  1844  were  £405,768 
do  do  1845  “ 447,190 

Receipts  from  passengers, £293,707 

do  Mails, 7,445 

do  Merchandise,  £98,859;  parcels,  25,826  ; > i^r^Qoo 

do  cattle  and  horses,  21,153 \ ’ 

The  number  of  passengers  taken  over  this  road  the  last  year  was 
1,096,271 ; daily,  2,997 ; equal  to  the  average  of  through  passengers, 
1,705. 

The  maintenance  of  way,  repairs  of  bridges  and  station-houses,  engineers 

salaries,  office-charges,  &c £24,142 

Locomotive  power,  wages  to  engine-drivers  and  foremen  £5,994, 

Coke  fuel  £18,460  ; repairs  to  engines  and  tenders  £8,340 ; 

wasted  oil,  £2,414;  labor,  stationery  engines,  &;c 43,161 

Police  charges, 6,667 

Coach  traffic  charges, 17,517 

Coach  repairs, 6,083 

General  charges, 11,036 

Parish-rates  and  tax, £12,613  

Duty  on  passenger  traffic, 13,029  £108,608 

25,642 

Reserve  for  deprec’n  of  locomoti.  and  cars  15,498  41,140 


£149,748 

The  following  view  of  the  principal  railways  of  England  and  Scotland, 
is  compiled  from  the  August  number  of  Herapath’s  Railway  Journal : — 


Name  of  Railway. 

Miles. 

Cost. 

Value  of  stock. 

Dividend. 

Great  Western,  and  branches, 

221 

£7,455,690 

232 

8 per  ct. 

Liverpool  and  Manchester, 

31 

1,698,628 

214 

10  “ 

London  and  Birmingham, 

112i 

6,614,996 

250 

10  « 

Grand  Junction, 

119 

2,477,701 

248 

10  » 

Stockton  and  Darlington, 

43i 

2,000,000 

250 

15  « 

Midland, 

271 

6,259,838 

178 

6 « 

Manchester  and  Leeds, 

86 

3,293,716 

202 

7 “ 

Eastern  Counties, 

83 

4,010,910 

100 

34  « 

Great  N.  of  England, 

45 

1,237,487 

6 “ 

London  and  Southwestern, 

93 

2,604,406 

166 

9 « 

Newcastle  and  Darlington, 

56 

506,788 

216 

6 « 

Newcastle  and  Carlisle, 

60 

1,070,232 

116 

5 “ 

Southeastern,  just  finished, 

98 

3,739,810 

3i  “ 

York,  N.  M.  and  Leeds, 

48 

1,107,146 

220 

10  » 

Total, 

1,367 

£43,077,348= 

=£31,512  cost  per  mile. 

The  whole  cost  of  1,367  miles,  £43,077,348 — equal  to  8157,560  per 
mile.  The  other  short  roads  varying  in  their  dividends  from  nothing  up 
to  8 per  cent,  the  average  dividends  on  2,000  miles  of  road  that  have  cost 
£60,000,000,  yields  about  5 per  cent  dividends,  while  the  enhanced  value 
in  the  market  is  not  short  of  8200,000,000. 

Ireland  is  commencing  the  railway  system  in  earnest.  The  Dublin  and 
Drogheada  railroad,  31  miles,  pays  4 per  cent  on  its  great  cost.  The 
Dublin  and  Kingston,  9 per  cent  on  £354,733  for  six  miles.  France  is. 
pressing  forward  her  railways  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  British  chan- 
nel  with  the  Mediterranean.  Her  capitol,  with  Brussels,  Antwerp,  Vi- 
enna, and  finally,  Warsaw,  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  Black  sea,  while  a 


35G 


Mercantile  Law  Cases. 


road  from  Paris,  tlirougli  Spain  and  Portugal,  to  Lisbon,  is  projoctod,  and 
Avill  nodoii})t  bo  completed,  ihus  forming  the  great  band  to  unileand  main- 
tain Pbirope  in  a state  of  j)eace,  by  making  each  nation  dependent  on  the 
other,  for  the  interchange  of  commodities,  produced  by  inland  commerce; 
a traffic  the  most  productive  to  the  wealth  and  advancement  of  nations, 
during  a state  of  peace,  which  the  construction  of  railways  tends  to  per- 
petuate. That  railways  will  tend  to  liind  in  indissoluble  iron  bands,  the 
union  of  these  United  States,  and  extend  the  Anglo  Saxon  race  to  the 
Pacific  ocean,  there  can  be  no  fjuestion.  For  defence  they  are  invaluable. 
To  regulate  our  exchanges,  the  best  bank.  W ithout  them  we  cannot  have 
the  cheap  postage  system,  yet  the  general  government  is  parsimonious, 
and  it  would  appear,  ignorant  of  the  cost  of  yielding  them  this  mode  of 
rapid  transit  for  the  mails.  Railway  companies  are  abused  as  extortionate, 
&c.,  and  yet  the  Post  Master  General  is  not  authorized  by  Congress  to 
pay  per  mile  per  annum,  half  the  rates  paid  in  Pbigland,  from  a uniform 
postage  of  one  penny  jier  half  ounce  from  one  end  of  the  kingdom  to  the 
other.  The  error  on  this  subject  should  be  corrected.  Now  that  railways 
in  the  United  States  are  generally  weak  and  struggling  with  pecuniary 
difficuities,  to  extend  and  connect  the  detached  parts,  the  general  govern- 
ment should  step  in,  or  for  the  privilege  and  right,  in  the  several  states,  of 
carrying  the  mails,  troops,  and  munitions  of  war,  on  prej'ered  terms,  as  to 
price.  The  people  could  well  afford  to  pay  about  $3,000,  per  mile,  or  the 
interest  of  this  sum,  for  this  privilege,  where  roads  are  completed  and  in 
use.  Without  something  of  this  kind  is  promptly  done  by  the  next  Con- 
gress, it  is  to  be  feared,  that  combinations  of  private  enterprise,  aided  by 
state  authority,  and  state  cupidity,  may  nullify  all  attempts  on  the  part  of 
the  general  government,  to  procure  rights  in  the  main  sea-board  lines,  and 
into  the  interior,  through  the  several  indebted  states,  who  may,  like  New 
Jersey,  tax  them  for  the  privilege  of  transit.  j.  e.  b. 


MERCANTILE  LAW  DEPARTMENT. 

MERCANTILE  LAW  CASES. 

BILL  IN  EQUITY  TO  RESCIND  A PURCHASE  OF  REAL  ESTATE. 

In  the  United  States  Circuit  Court,  (Boston,  Mass.,)  Veazie  v.  Williams,  ei.  al. 

This  was  a bill  in  equity,  brought  to  rescind  a purchase  of  mills,  made  by  the 
plaintiff  at  auction,  on  the  ground  of  fraud  committed  by  the  auctioneer,  as  the 
agent  of  the  defendants,  in  bidding  against  the  plaintiff,  and  thereby  inducing  him 
to  give  more  than  its  value  for  the  property.  It  appeared  that  the  sale  was  in 
.Tanuary,  1836.  The  defendants,  who  lived  in  Boston,  were  the  owners  of  certain 
mills  in  Oldtown,  near  Bangor,  in  the  state  of  Maine,  which  were  supposed  to  be 
worth  $14,000  or  $15,000.  A Mr.  Head  was  employed  as  an  auctioneer  to  sell 
the  property  for  the  defendants.  Mr.  Veazie,  the  plaintiff,  and  a Mr.  Wadleigh, 
who  were  mill  owners,  living  near  by,  were  each  anxious  to  buy  the  mills  in 
(juestion,  and  felt  a spirit  of  rivalry  to  obtain  them.  They  were  struck  off  to 
Foster,  who  was  the  agent  of  Mr.  Veazie,  and  who  bid  for  him,  at  $40,000.  Mr. 
Veazie  adopted  the  contract,  paid  down  $12,000,  and  gave  two  notes  for  $14,000 
each,  payal)le  one  in  one  year,  and  one  in  two  years,  for  the  balance.  The  first 
of  the  two  notes  was  paid,  and  interest  paid  on  the  other  until  1840.  The  defen- 
dants were  not  present  at  the  sale,  knew  nothing  about  any  by-bidding,  and  had 
given  no  directions  to  the  auctioneer  or  any  other  person  to  bid  for  them,  but  had 
in  fact  expressly  forbidden  it.  Wadleigh  had  authorised  Head  to  bid  for  him,  as 


The  Proposed  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  269 

300,000  tons  of  coal.  If  one  half  that  stock  should  be  drawn  into  the  State, 
instead  of  paying  away  $600,000  per  annum  for  nothing,  the  value  would  be 
retained  in  the  State  and  accumulate  its  resources  yearly,  adding  to  its  taxables 
and  lightening  the  general  burden.  It  would  seem,  however,  as  is  usually  the 
case  when  they  prevail  to  any  extent,  that  chartered  influences  are  too  strong  to 
allow  of  any  movement  that  militates  against  their  interests,  more  particularly 
as  appears  to  be  the  case,  that  the  interests  of  the  stockholders  are  not  strongly 
represented  in  the  State — a fact  recognizable  in  the  payment  to  them  of  the 
relief  notes  and  taxing  the  debt. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  immense  losses  and  expenditure  of  the  State 
of  Pennsylvania  to  develop  her  resources,  have  been  of  very  little  avail.  As, 
for  instance,  her  coal  trade  has  grown  up  from  nothing  in  1825,  to  3,000,000 
tons  per  annum.  Of  this  vast  amount,  but  192,511  tons  came  to  Philadel- 
phia upon  the  State  works ; the  Union,  Lehigh,  Schuylkill  and  Delaware  ca- 
nals, and  the  Reading  Railroad,  all  private  works,  dehvered  the  remainder. 


Art.  III.— THE  PROPOSED  RAILROAD  ACROSS  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA. 

Those  who  have  read  the  Cosmos  of  Baron  V on  Humboldt,  must  be  deep- 
ly impressed  with  the  novel,  striking,  and  very  interesting  views  there  pre- 
sented of  the  future  progress  and  development  of  civihzation  in  this  country, 
as  dependent  upon  and  connected  with  the  physical  features  of  the  vast  con- 
tinent we  inhabit. 

Without  startling  our  practical  readers  with  opinions  that  appear  to  be 
merely  speculative  or  theoretical,  (however  true  and  pleasing  we  may  regard 
them,)  we  will  remark  that  it  cannot  escape  the  notice  of  the  most  superficial 
observer,  that  there  must  necessarily  be  a gTeat  dissimilarity  between  the 
wants,  resources,  means,  and  appliances  of  two  people  equally  advanced  in 
knowledge  and  the  arts,  one  of  whom  exists  in  a compact  and  closely  settled 
community,  while  the  other  inhabits  a country  of  immense  extent  and  of  un- 
bounded resources,  the  greater  portion  of  which  still  remains  to  be  conquered 
from  the  rude  hand  of  nature.  The  most  hasty  glance  at  our  present  con- 
dition will  suffice  to  satisfy  the  mind  as  to  the  real  dependence  of  our  nation- 
al progress,  both  in  form  and  amount,  upon  certain  prominent  and  charac- 
teristic geographical  peculiarities,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  broad  and  deep 
lakes  of  the  North,  the  interminable  livers  of  the  West,'  the  lofty  mountains 
of  our  central  States,  and  the  fertile  savannahs  of  the  South.  It  is  undoubt- 
edly true,  that  viewed  in  relation  to  these  controlling  causes,  to  favor  the 
operation  of  which  we  seem  to  be  eminently  adapted  by  our  spirit  of  enter- 
prise, equally  bold  in  conceptions  and  execution,  the  future  development  of 
society  in  the  new  world,  offers  to  the  contemplative  mind  the  widest  field  of 
expectation  and  of  wonder. 

We  already  witness  many  striking  effects  of  those  causes.  To  some  of  them 
we  have  made  a passing  allusion.  Another  of  these  effects,  and  one  imme- 
diately connected  with  the  subject  before  us,  is  the  character  of  those  under- 
takings, whether  public  or  private,  by  which  the  means  of  intercommunica- 
tion, for  the  purposes  of  trade  and  travel,  are  established  between  remote  parts 
of  our  territory.  This  character  becomes  more  marked  and  peculiar,  as  the 
population  of  the  country,  and  consequently  its  wants,  are  increased  and  ex- 


270  The  Proposed  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

tended.  To  meet  tlieae  wants,  and  to  ])nii^  out,  in  a form  of  prjuttical  utility, 
the  hidden  means  by  whicli  tliey  may  supj)lied,  tlu're  is  never  wantiuf^ 
some  bold  and  ingenious  mind  that  sees  the  true  connection  of  tiling  ]iowev<!r 
apparently  distant,  and  is  ready  to  propose  a sclumie  of  improvement,  by  which 
that  connection  may  be  established. 

A ready  example  of  tins  occurs  to  every  one  in  the  junction  of  the  North- 
ern Lakes  with  the  Atlantic  oceari,  and  in  the  name,  of  I)e  Witt  ClinU)n,  tlui 
author  of  tliis  project,  from  the  execution  of  which  his  name  has  n!ceiv(*d  a 
great  and  enduring  fame.  Ihit  such  projects  will  always  encount<*r,  in  their 
beginning,  the  opposition  of  less  ardent  and  enter])rising  minds.  They  are, 
in  fact,  somewhat  in  advance  of  their  time  ; and  we,  who  read  the  history  of 
their  slow  progress  towards  completion,  have  to  admire  no  less  the  Antean 
vigor  with  which  their  authors  rise  uj)  after  occasional  defe;it,  than  the  gran- 
deur of  the  schemes  themselves,  so  for  outstripping  the  calculations  of  ordi- 
nary men. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  such  grand  projects  rarely  have  their  origin  in 
the  scenes  of  business,  and  of  merely  })ractical  life.  Commerce  is  a science, 
as  well  as  an  art — and  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  those  whose  attention  is 
engrossed  by  plans  of  individual  profit  and  advantage,  or  by  the  multii)lied 
and  complicated  details  of  the  counting  room,  should  always  be  possessed  of 
the  taste  and  leisure  for  studying  the  principles  upon  which  their  art  is  found- 
ed. Accordingly,  the  whole  history  and  literature  of  commerce  show  that 
those  ideas  and  rules  of  action  that  regulate  the  commercial  intercourse  be- 
tween nations,  those  combinations  and  discoveries  that  open  new  channels  of 
trade,  and  those  theories  that  comprehend  and  explain  the  laws  and  princi- 
ples of  commerce,  are  derived  from  the  man  of  thought  and  reflection — from 
the  political  economist,  whether  a student  in  his  closet,  or  a statesman  in 
office. 

In  the  report  of  Mr.  T.  Butler  King  upon  the  Railroad  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  which  we  intend  to  lay  in  a brief  manner  before  our 
readers,  we  see  the  final  step  in  the  achievement  of  a great  undertaking,  pre- 
cisely similar  in  character  to  those  of  which  we  have  just  spoken. 

When  Mr.  King  first  brought  forward  his  plans  for  a system  of  mail  steam 
packet  communication  between  New  York  and  Chagres,  and  between  Pan- 
ama and  Oregon,  he  was  compelled  to  invite  private  enterprise  by  offers  of 
assistance  from  the  government,  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  government  by 
urging  the  great  and  serviceable  addition  that  these  vessels  would  prove  to 
the  naval  force  of  the  country  in  time  of  war,  and  to  overcome  the  opposition 
of  his  associates  in  Congress  by  arguments  and  persuasions  addressed  to  their 
pride,  their  interest,  and  their  local  connections.  He  foresaw  that  this  rail- 
road was  sooner  or  later  to  follow  as  the  consequence  of  the  mail  packet  sys- 
tem— that  it  would  very  soon  be  perceived  that  the  chain  of  communication 
(to  use  the  common  figure)  wanted  yet  a single  link  to  be  complete — and 
that  the  argument  at  present  applied  with  so  much  force,  “ we  have  now 
established  a steam  communication  on  the  water  between  New  York  and  the 
Columbia  river,  but  in  order  to  make  it  perfect  we  must  have  some  easy,  cer- 
tain, rapid,  cheap,  and  permanent  means  of  transit  across  the  isthmus,  with- 
out wliich  our  lives  are  subject  to  great  expense,  irregularity,  and  inconve- 
niences,”— that  this  argument,  so  valid  and  so  obvious,  would  be  immediately 
statesd. 

The  enterj)rise,  which,  a few  years  since,  was  regarded  by  many  as  one  of 
eloubtful  utility,  and  at  least  as  being  a little  premature,  is  likely  to  prove  one 


The  Proposed  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 


271 


of  the  most  magnificent  schemes  of  the  age,  and  we  congratulate  the  author 
of  it  upon  his  well  deserved  success  and  honor. 

But  in  the  report  before  us,  Mr.  King  has  advanced  far  beyond  his  former 
position,  (in  respect,  we  mean,  to  this  route  across  the  isthmus,)  by  present- 
ing some  new  and  very  remarkable  views  as  to  the  effect  of  this  road  upon 
the  general  commerce  of  the  world,  of  which  it  is  to  make  this  nation  the 
great  central  seat  and  agent.  These  views,  like  those  of  Mr.  King  upon  steam 
communication  with  China,  are  founded  upon  commercial  statistics,  collected 
with  industry,  and  compared  together  with  originality.  From  their  combi- 
nation, and  a study  of  their  common  relations,  Mr.  King  has  been  led  to  the 
discovery  of  new  laws  and  channels  of  trade ; and  if  the  experience  of  the 
future  should  establish  the  correctness  of  those  principles  of  commercial  inter- 
course which  he  has  been  the  first  to  announce,  his  name  will  be  hereafter 
permanently  associated  with  an  important  epoch  in  the  commercial  history  of 
this  country. 

We  will  proceed  to  give  a brief  S3mopsis  of  the  report. 

It  is  based  upon  a memorial  of  Wm.  H.  Aspinw all,  John  L.  Stephens,  and 
Henry  Chauncey,  praying  for  aid  from  the  government  of  the  United  States 
to  construct  a railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  memorialists 
have  procured  a charter  from  the  government  of  New  Grenada,  (originally 
granted  to  a French  company,  but  afterwards  forfeited,)  which  secures  to  them 
very  extensive  privileges  on  the  isthmus,  provided  the  work  shall  be  comple- 
ted within  eight  years,  and  be  commenced  within  eighteen  months  from  the 
date  of  their  grant.  The  memorialists  are  unwilling  to  engage  in  a work  of 
such  magnitude,  and  so  remote  from  our  own  borders,  without  efficient  aid 
from  the  government ; and  the  object  of  Mr.  King  in  his  report  is,  to  show  that 
it  is  the  wise  policy  to  extend  such  aid,  and  to  point  out  the  very  striking 
practical  benefits  that  are  certain  to  result  from  the  construction. 

The  first  step  in  the  course  of  the  argument  is  to  mention  a fact,  explain- 
ing the  superior  advantages  possessed  by  Great  Britain  over  ourselves,  and 
other  nations,  by  means  of  her  maritime  position.  This  part  of  the  report  is 
too  interesting  to  be  abbreviated. 

“ Great  Britain  is  principally  indebted  to  her  skill  in  commerce  and  manufactures 
for  her  commercial  ascendancy,  but  she  is  also  indebted  in  no  small  degree  to  her 
position.  She  not  only  has  the  ports  of  the  continent  of  Europe  as  her  neighbors, 
but  she  is  fifteen  hundred  miles,  or  two  weeks,  nearer  than  we  are  to  all  the  other 
ports  of  the  world,  except  the  Atlantic  ports  of  the  American  continent  north  of  the 
equator  and  the  West  Indies.  The  cause  of  this  is,  that  all  vessels  bound  from 
our  ports  to  places  south  of  the  Line,  or  beyond  either  of  the  capes,  cross  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Azores  or  Western  Islands,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  favorable 
winds,  while  vessels  from  British  ports  run  down  to  the  same  latitude  and  longi- 
tude without  the  necessity  of  crossing  the  ocean,  to  avail  themselves  of  the  same 
advantages.  This  difference  in  favor  of  British  commerce,  running  through  our 
entire  existence  as  a nation,  has  been  a most  serious  obstacle  for  our  merchants 
and  navigators  to  contend  with,  and  has  of  itself  been  a vast  item  in  favor  of  the 
profits  on  British  capital.  Lieutenant  M.  F.  Maury,  superintendent  of  the  Ob- 
servatory, has,  within  two  or  three  years  past,  proposed  a more  direct  route  for 
vessels  bound  from  our  ports  to  ports  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  American  con- 
tinent, south  of  the  equator  and  beyond  Cape  Horn,  which  will  save  about  one 
thousand  miles  of  the  distance  to  those  places,  but  all  vessels  bound  round  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  will  be  compelled  to  pursue  the  old  route. 


272 


The  Proposed  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  HAILING  DISTANCES  FROM  NEW  YORK  AND  LIVERPOOL  TO  THE  PRINCI- 
PAL PORTS  BEYOND  OR  AROUND  CAPE  HORN  AND  THE  CAPE  OK  GOOD  HOPE. 


To  Calcutta  via  Cape  of  Good  Hope . . miles 

From  Liverpool. 
If), 000 

F'rom  New  York. 

17,500 

U 

“ Horn 

21,500 

2.‘1,000 

Canton 

“ “ 

20,000 

21,500 

“ 

“ of  Good  Hope 

18,000 

19,500 

Valparaiso  via 

Cape  Horn 

11,400 

1 2,900 

Callao 

“ 

1 2,000 

13,500 

Guayaquil 

a 

12,800 

14,300 

Panama 

“ 

14,500 

1 6,000 

San  Bias 

ir.,:ioo 

17,800 

Mazatlan 

“ 

lfi,500 

18,000 

San  Diego 

“ 

17,000 

18,600 

San  Francisco 

“ 

17,500 

19,000 

“ The  construction  of  the  proposed  railroad  across  the  isthmus  will  not  only 
do  away  this  advantiige  over  us,  now  possessed  by  Jluropean  commerce  and  nav- 
igation, but  will  turn  the  tide  in  our  favor. 

“The  average  distance  from  Ijiverpool,  London,  and  Havre,  to  Panama,  is  four 
thousand  seven  hundred  miles;  from  New  York  the  distance  is  two  thousand 
miles ; from  Charleston  one  thousand  four  hundred  ; from  Savannah  one  thousand 
three  hundred ; from  New  Orleans  and  Mobile  one  thousand  six  hundred  ; making 
an  average  distance  from  our  princijial  exporting  Atlantic  and  gulf  ports  of  about 
one  thousand  six  hundred  miles  to  Panama.  If,  therefore,  we  admit,  for  the  sake 
of  the  argument,  that  European  commerce  with  the  Pacific  ocean,  the  East  India 
and  China  seas,  will  take  the  new  route  across  the  isthmus — these  will  be  a differ- 
ence of  three  thousand  one  hundred  miles  in  our  favor.  Add  to  this  the  one 
thousand  five  hundred  miles  now  against  us,  and  we  find  that  we  shall  gain  by 
this  channel  of  communication,  in  our  relative  position  to  those  parts  of  the  world, 
a distance  of  four  thousand  six  hundred  miles,  or  of  forty-two  days.  In  the  voy- 
age out  and  home  we  shall  have  the  advantage  of  our  European  competitors  of 
nine  thousand  two  hundred  miles,  and  eighty-four  days,  as  compared  with  the 
present  route.” 

Tlie  gain  to  us  in  time  and  distance,  here  stated,  is  limited  by  the  suppo- 
sition that  European  ships  will  carry  their  owm  goods  as  much  as  formerly, 
intended  for  the  Pacific  markets,  and  will  go  freighted  to  the  eastern  termi- 
nus of  the  proposed  railroad.  That,  however,  adds  Mr.  King,  will  not  be 
the  case. 

On  the  contrary,  “ the  large  number  of  vessels  bound  to  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  for  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  lumber,  flour,  provisions,  &c.,  will  bring  the 
freights  for  those  markets  as  ballast  or  cargoes,  whence  they  will  be  conveyed  to 
the  railroad  in  our  own  fast-sailing  coasting  vessels  and  steamers,  which  will  also 
bring  to  us  the  commerce  of  the  Pacific.  This  is  very  obvious,  because,  if  Euro- 
pean ships  were  to  sail  with  full  cargoes  direet  to  the  railroad,  they  would  run  the 
risk  of  being  compelled  to  return  without  freight,  or  come  to  the  United  States 
for  it.  We  are  so  much  nearer  to  the  isthmus  than  the  ports  of  Europe,  and  our 
means  of  communication  and  information  will  be  so  frequent  and  certain,  our 
lines  of  steamers  and  coasting  vessels  so  constantly  on  the  alert,  and  will  move 
with  such  celerity,  that  heavy  European  freighting  ships  will  find  it  quite  impossi- 
ble to  compete  with  them.  If  this  view  of  the  subject  be  correct,  and  we  believe 
it  is,  the  construction  of  this  railroad  will  throw  into  our  warehouses  and  shipping 
the  entirii  commerce  of  the  Pacific  ocean.  Our  ports  are  on  the  very  w^ay-side 
from  Europe  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  our  lines  of  steamers  and  packet 
ships  across  the  Atlantic  will  come  laden  with  the  freiglits  destined  for  that  chan- 
nel of  trade.  'J’he  commerce,  therefore,  from  Europe  to  the  East  Indies,  China, 
and  the  west  coast  of  this  continent,  will  be  forced  to  pursue  the  old  route  or  fall 
into  our  hands.  The  following  table  shows,  stronger  than  language  could  express 
it,  the  saving  in  distance  and  time  which  will  result  to  our  commerce  from  the 


The  Proposed  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  273 

completion  of  this  work,  and  the  advantage  it  will  give  to  us  over  our  commer- 
cial rivals. 


New  route  Old  route 


To  Calcutta  via Cape  of  Good  Hope miles 

from 

New  York. 

from 

New  York. 

17,500 

From 

Liverpool. 

16,000 

“ Horn 

.... 

23,000 

21,600 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

13,400 

Canton  via Cape  of  Good  Hope 

.... 

19,500 

18,000 

“ Horn 

.... 

21,500 

20,000 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

10,600 

Shanghae  via. . .Cape of  Good  Hope 

.... 

20,000 

18,500 

“ Horn 

22,000 

20,600  • 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

10,400 

Valparaiso  via. . Cape  Horn 

• • • • 

12,900 

11,400 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

4,800 

Callao  via. Cape  Horn 



13,600 

12,000 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

3,500 

Guayaquil  via. . . Cape  Horn 

. « • • 

14,300 

12,800 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

2,800 

Panama  via Cape  Horn 

16,000 

14,500 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

2,o66 

San  Bias  via. . . . Cape  Horn 



17,800 

16,300 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

3,800 

Mazatlan  via. . . . Cape  Horn 

18,000 

16,500 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

4,000 

San  Diego  via. . . Cape  Horn 

18,500 

17,000 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

4,606 

San  Francisco  via  Cape  Horn 

19,000 

17,500 

Isthmus  of  Panama 

5,666 

“ These  figures  show  that  the  new  route  across  the  isthmus  will  bring  us  more 

than  an  average  of  ten  thousand  miles  nearer  to  the  East  Indies,  China,  and  the 
ports  of  South  America  on  the  Pacific,  and  will  actually,  for  all  the  purposes  of 
navigation  and  commercial  intercourse,  bring  the  ports  of  the  west  coast  of  Mexi- 
co, California,  and  Oregon  fourteen  thousand  miles  nearer  to  us  than  they  now 
are ! With  steamers  on  each  side  of  the  isthmus  that  will  go  fifteen  miles  an 
hour — a speed  ascertained  to  he  quite  practicable — passengers,  the  mails,  and 
small  packages  of  light  and  valuable  goods  may  be  conveyed  from  New  York  to 
San  Francisco  in  fourteen  days,  and  from  our  southern  ports  in  less  time.  Thus 
bringing  these  remote  points,  for  all  practical  purposes,  nearer  than  New  York 
and  New  Orleans  were  twenty  years  ago. 

“ The  average  saving  of  time  in  our  commercial  intercourse  with  the  west  coast 
of  America,  China,  and  the  East  Indies,  which  will  be  effected  by  the  construction 
of  the  proposed  railroad,  is  exhibited  in  the  following  table : — 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SAVING  OF  TIME  FROM  NEW  YORK,  BY  THE  NEW  ROUTE  VIA  THE  ISTH- 
MUS OF  PANAMA,  AS  COMPARED  WITH  THE  OLD  ROUTES  VIA  CAPE  HORN  AND  THE  CAPE  OF 
GOOD  HOPE,  TO  THE  PLACES  THEREIN  NAMED,  ESTIMATING  THE  DISTANCE  WHICH  A COM- 
MON TRADING  SHIP  WILL  SAIL  PER  DAY  TO  BE  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  TEN  MILES,  AND  CAL- 
CULATING FOR  THE  VOYAGE  OUT  AND  HOME. 


D 

2. 

3. 

4, 

5. 

6.  7. 

8. 

Miles. 

Days. 

Miles. 

Days. 

Miles. 

Days.  Days.  Days. 

Calcutta. . . 

318 

23,000 

418 

13,400 

244  74 

174 

Canton 

354 

21,500 

390 

10,600 

192  162 

198 

Shanghae  ., 

20,000 

362 

22,000 

400 

10,400 

188  174 

212 

Valparaiso, 

12,900 

234 

4,800 

86  ... 

148 

Callao 

13,500 

244 

3,500 

62  ... 

182 

Guayaquil.., 

14,300 

260 

2,800 

60  ... 

210 

Panama . . . 

16,000 

290 

2,000 

36  ... 

254 

. Distance  via  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  2. 

Length  of  passage  out  and  home. 

3.  Distance  via 

)e  Horn. 

4.  Length  of  passage  out  and  home. 

5.  Distance  via  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

6.  Length  of  passage  out  and  home.  7.  Saving  via  the  isthmus  over  the  route  via  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  out  and  home.  8.  Saying  via  the  isthmus  over  the  route  via  Cape  Horn,  out  and  home. 


274 


The  Proposed  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 


To  San  Bias 

Mazatlan 

San  Diego 

San  Francisco 


17,800 

322 

3,800 

68  . , 

. . 254 

18,000 

326 

4,000 

72  . , 

. . 254 

18,500 

336 

4,500 

82  . , 

. . 254 

10,000 

344 

5,000 

00  . , 

. . 254 

more 

across 


Tlie  employment  of  steam  vessels  would  render  the  contrast  in  o\ir  favor  still 
e striking.  But  the  difliculty  and  expense  of  transporting  heavy  merchandise 

,ss  the  isthmus  in  its  present  slate,  and  the  distance  round  the  capes,  render 

the  employment  of  steam  in  the.  carrying  trade,  to  the  East  Indies,  China,  and  the 
west  coast  of  America,  quite  impracticahle.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  ern- 
ploy  steam  packets  in  the  conveyance  of  the  mails  and  passengers.  Let  this  rail- 
road  be  completed,  however,  and  no  part  of  the  world  will  present  as  great  Jid- 
vantages  for  the  successful  use  of  steam  in  ocean  navigation  as  the  Ibicihc.  Coal 
is  found  on  all  its  borders,  both  American  and  Asiatic,  in  the  greatest  (piantity 
and  perfection.  Its  quiet  waters  seem  to  indicate  steam  as  the  prf)per  agent  to  be 
employed  in  their  navigation.  The  spirit  and  genius  of  the  American  people,  and 
the  extent  of  our  territory  on  the  west  side  of  the  continent,  proclaim  clearly 
enough  that  we  are  to  become  the  legitimate  heirs  of  a vast  commerce  that  shall 
spread  fleets  of  steam  ships  over  the  bosom  of  this  peaceful  ocean. 

“ Steamers,  with  a speed  of  twelve  miles  an  hour,  would  go  from  New  York  via 
the  isthmus,  (throwing  out  the  fractions) — 

To  Calcutta  in days  47  To  Panama  in days  7 

Canton  in 36  ban  Bias  in 12 

Slianghae  in 36  Mazatlan  m 14 

Valparaiso  in 17  San  Diego  m 16 

Callao  in 12  San  PYancisco  in. *18 

Guayaquil  in 


We  need  make  no  apology  to  our  readers  for  tbe  length  of  this  extract. 
It  sufficiently  recommends  itself  by  the  originality  of  its  conceptions,  and  the 
logical  clearness  with  which  they  are  presented.  It  opens  in  prospect,  and 
n(S  a distant  one,  the  commercial  resources  and  means  of  wealth  and  enter- 
prise, which  are  eminently  suited  to  build  up  the  power  of  this  vast  empire, 
and  to  hasten  the  time  when  it  shall  become  the  foremost  nation  of  all  the 
world,  taking  the  place  that  is  rightly  due  to  its  physical  condition,  to  the 
character  of  its  people,  and  to  its  free  institutions. 

And  Mr.  King  suggests  that  it  may  have  been  owing  to  the  sagacious  dis- 
cernment of  this'’  result,  that  European  capitalists  have  refused  to  lend  their 
aid  to  the  accomplishment  of  an  undertaking  which  wnll  not  only  deprive 
them  of  the  decided  superiority  they  now  possess  over  us  in  their  intercourse 
with  nine-tenths  of  the  world,  exclusive  of  ourselves,  but  will  place  us  so  far 
ahead  in  the  race  for  commercial  supremacy,  that  we  can  never  be  overtaken. 

Mr.  Alexander  Forbes,  in  a work  on  California,  published  in  London  as  far 
back  as  1839,  quoted  by  Mr.  King,  dwelt  upon  the  favorable  situation  of 
that  country  for  intercourse  with  other  nations,  and  its  capacity  for  com- 
merce, should  it  ever  be  possessed  by  a numerous  and  industrious  popu- 
lation. 

“ California  has  now  been  added  to  our  territory  on  the  Pacific.  Its  beautiful 
and  commodious  harbors,  its  delightful  climate,  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  its 
mineral  wealth,  are  attracting  thousands  and  probably  tens  of  thousands  ot  our 
fellow  citizens  to  it.  The  most  rapid  means  of  communication  should  be  estete 
lished  to  facilitate  their  emigration,  protect  them  in  their  new  homes,  supply  their 


* Wo  art!  rcmind(‘d  here  that  some  studious  and  zealous  critics  have  objected  to  the  length  of  son^ 
of  th(!  i)a.ssagt!s  a.s  given  in  Mr.  King’s  tables.  Though  we  have  entire  confidence  in  the  sour^s  of 
formation  tm  which  Mr.  King  has  relied,  yet  we  are  not  at  Ml  careful  to  XihteBt‘d^ 

the  corrections  of  these  ingenious  persons,  even  if  fully  admitted,  are  too  ‘“  tbe  lightest 

groe  to  invalidate  Mr.  King’s  argument,  which  we  may  not  uncharitably  suppose  to  be  less  congenial 
to  such  minds  than  the  barren  statistics  on  which  it  is  based. 


The  Proposed  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  275 

wants,  and  to  enable  them  still  to  participate  in  the  blessings  of  our  free  institu- 
tions They  will  be  large  consumers  of  our  manufactures  of  every  description, 
and  for  some  years  to  come,  at  least,  of  our  agricultural  products  also.” (P.  7.) 

Frorri  what  we  see  at  present  we  may  expect  that  mining  operations,  and 
not  agricultural  pursuits,  will  form  the  almost  exclusive  occupation  of  the  in- 
habitants for^  many  years  to  come,  during  which  they  will  depend  upon 
others  for  their  supply  of  food,  as  well  as  of  articles  of  manufacture.  If  our 
ships  still  continue  to  take  the  circuitous  route  round  Cape  Horn,  it  will  be 
impossible  for  us  to  compete  with  Chili,  Peru,  and  other  adjacent  ports,  in 
provi^ng  for  the  markets  of  California,  flour,  and  other  perishable  articles. 
This  is  brought  forward  by  Mr.  King,  as  being  of  itself  a strong  reason  for 
aiding  in  the  construction  of  the  proposed  road.  He  points  out  the  great 
superiority  we  shall  gain  by  the  diminished  cost  of  transportation,  not  only 
m the  markets  of  California,  but  in  those  of  the  whole  Pacific ; and  he  applies 
here  the  fundamental  maxim  in  trade,  that  a diminution  in  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation, is  equivalent  to  a diminution  in  the  cost  of  production. 

But,  without  dwelling  upon  this,  we  pass  now  to  the  consideration  of 
another  novel  and  striking  idea,  as  to  the  effect  to  be  produced  by  this  rail- 
road upon  the  general  commerce  of  the  world,  and  of  the  manner  in  which 
this  result  is  to  be  obtained.  We  shall  let  Mr.  King  speak  for  himself: — 

“ We  have  already  spoken  of  the  commanding  position  which  Great  Britain  oc- 
cupies  m the  commercial  world,  and  we  deem  it  proper  to  remark  still  further  on 
the  advantages  she  has  derived  from  it.  At  an  early  day  she  adopted  the  ware- 
housing system.  This  enabled  her  own  merchants  and  those  of  all  other  coun- 
tries  to  place  nierchandise  in  bond,  for  consumption  or  exportation.  It  has  been 
equally  beneficial  to  her  commerce  and  manufactures. 

“While  it  has  exempted  the  merchants  from  paying  duties  on  importations  be- 
yond actual  consumption,  it  has  enabled  them  to  make  up,  with  home  manufac- 
tures and  foreign  commodities,  assorted  cargoes  for  all  parts  of  the  world.  Fo- 
reigners have  thus  been  induced  to  place  immense  amounts  of  merchandise  in 
might  have  the  double  advantage  of  consumption  or  re-exportation. 

1 he  manufacturer  has  thus  been  enabled  to  allow  the  raw  materials,  necessary 
to  his  pursuit,  to  remain  in  store  until  required  for  use,  without  being  burdened 
vnth  the  payment  of  large  sums  in  duties  on  importations  not  immediately  wanted. 
A vast  supply  has  thus  been  constantly  held,  at  the  expense  of  the  foreign  producer:^ 

To  support  this  view,  tables  prepared  with  evident  care  and  labor  are  in- 
serted in  the  body  of  the  report,  showing  the  quantities  of  a long  list  of  ar- 
ticles of  foreign  growth  and  production,  in  the  bonded  warehouses  of  Lon- 
don, Liverpool,  Bristol  and  Hull,  on  the  5th  January,  1832  and  1833  ; and 
the  quantities  and  official  value  of  articles  of  foreign  growth  and  production 
re-exported  from,  compared  with  the  official  value  of  the  total  imports  into, 
Great  Britain,  from  1831  to  1844. 

“ The  great  variety  and  amount  of  articles  constantly  on  hand  in  the  British 
warehouses,  as  shown  in  these  tables,  for  domestic  consumption — the  supply  of 
ler  commerce  and  manufactures — is  truly  surprising.  It  will  be  seen  that  more 
ban  onefifth  of  all  the  imports  are  re-exported,  and  that  if  the  whole  amount  of 
luties  payable  had  been  exacted,  her  merchants  would  have  been  required  to  pay 
nore  than  two  hundred  and  eighteen  millions  of  dollars  onfve  articles  alone,  from 
which  they  were  relieved  by  the  warehousing  system. 

“The  total  value  of  articles  imported  into  the  United  States  in  1848,  was 
^154,977,876.  The  value  of  articles  re-exported  was  $7,986,806.  Thus  it  will 
>e  seen  that  we  re-export  but  a little  more  than  one-twentieth  of  our  imports,  and 
hat  the  re-exportations  from  Great  Britain  are  nearly  five  times  larger  in  propor- 
lon  to  her  imports  than  ours,  and  are  actually  nine  times  larger  than  ours.  Now 

VOL.  XX. NO.  III.  18  ’ 


276  The  Proposed  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

if  by  the  conatniction  of  tlie  proponed  work  we  jpve  nneh  a direction  to  the  courw 
of  trade  as  to  brin^r  us  almost  in  a central  position  between  Enropt;  and  Asia,  it 
seems  impossible  to  resist  the  conclusion  that  our  warehouses  must  become  the 
great  depots  and  our  cities  the  marts  of  modem  commerce.”— (P.  14.) 

We  have  not  left  ourselves  any  room  b)  s])eak  of  the  teniis  of  our  recent 
treaty  with  New  Grenada,  or  of  the  bill  accompanying  Mr.  King’s  report. 
We  can  only  say  of  tlie  former,  that  it  amounts  to  a defensive  league  on  our 
part,  by  which  we  virtually  guarantee  the  S4)ver(Mgnty  and  independence  of 
New  Grenada  for  a period  of  twenty  years ; and  of  the  hitter,  that  it  is  pre- 
pared with  great  care  and  foretliought,  and  provides  tliat  at  least  seven-eighths 
of  the  stock  shall  be  owned  by  citizens  of  the  United  Sbites. 

Tlie  services  to  l)e  rendered  by  the  contractors  in  return  for  the  pecuniary 
assistance  received  from  the  government,  will  exceed  by  many  fold  the 
amount  it  advances. 

The  rapid  settlement  of  California,  and  the  charaebir  and  pursuits  of  its 
people,  will  soon  render  the  efficient  interjiosition  of  the  government  neces- 
sary, and  the  frequent  transportation  of  agents,  and  of  military  stores,  and 
men  must  inevitably  take  place. 

We  have  also  seen  recently  in  the  public  jirints  a letter  from  Commodore 
Jones,  commanding  the  squadron  in  the  I’acific,  in  which  he  recommends  to 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  that  our  ships  of  war  should  be  refitted  in  Cali- 
fornia, by  which  their  long  absence  from  a station  where  they  constitute  a 
most  ’important  and  efficient  police  will  be  prevented,  and  the  great  delay 
and  expense  of  the  tedious  voyages  round  Cape  Horn  and  back  be  saved. 
Tliis  is  so  palpably  a measure  of  economy  and  policy,  that  it  cannot  fail  to  re- 
ceive the  sanction  of  the  department  controlling  the  navy.  And  here  we 
have  at  once,  in  the  transportation  of  materials,  stores,  and  persons  required 
to  establish  a naval  depot  in  Cahfornia,  and  to  relieve  from  time  to  time  the 
officers  and  crews  of  our  diflerent  ships  of  war,  a mode  by  which  the  govern- 
ment will  be  fully  reimbursed  for  its  proposed  expenditures. 

But  it  must  not  be  thought  that  it  at  all  enters  into  the  views  of  Mr. 
King,  that  this  mode  of  communication  witli  California  is  to  dispense  with  the 
future  construction  of  a railroad  from  the  valley  ot  the  Mississippi  to  the 
borders  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

This  road,  which  is  equally  demanded  by  public  opinion  and  public  policy, 
must  sooner  or  later  be  made.  We  rejoice  to  see  that  the  mind  of  the  na- 
tion is  already  so  fixed  upon  it,  that  the  commencement  of  this  great  under- 
taking may  be  regarded  as  not  very  distant.  And  much,  we  conceive,  will 
depend  upon  the  manner  and  direction  in  which  it  is  begun.  It  should,  as  a 
matter  of  obvious  policy,  take  such  a course  as  to  pass  through  lan(k  the  best 
adapted  for  immediate  settlement,  either  by  their  fertility  or  their  mineral 
wealth ; and  then  it  will  accomplish  more  rapidly  the  universal  effect  of  rail- 
roads, to  create  population  along  their  line. 

If  it  be  begun  at  both  extremities  of  the  line  simultaneously,  and  this  rule 
of  direction  be  followed,  the  public  lands  through  which  it  passes  will  be 
brought  into  market  under  very  profitable  conditions,  and  their  sale  from  year 
to  year  will  very  soon  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  year  in  con- 
struction. And  this  rapid  settlement  will  also  in  time  give  rise  to  the  by- 
travel, which  is  found,  even  on  the  main  routes,  in  the  old  States,  to  be  in- 
dispensable to  the  support  of  railroads,  in  the  expensive  and  handsome 
style  in  which  tliey  are  maintained,  at  least  at  the  North. 

We  have  dismissed  all  anxicity  as  to  the  accomplishment  of  this  great  un- 


The  Proposed  Railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  27 Y 

dertaking,  and  now  our  thoughts  are  turned  chiefly  to  the  examination  of 
the  various  plans  offered  to  the  public,  concerning  which  we  may  have 
something  more  to  say  hereafter. 

There  is  one  effect  following  the  completion  of  this  railroad  across  the 
isthmus,  (or  any  other  mode  of  easy  communication  between  the  two  oceans,) 
that  is  too  striking  to  be  omitted.  Since  the  earliest  application  of  steam  to 
navigation,  the  question  has  often  been  discussed,  as  to  how  far  this  motive 
power  would  be  eventually  employed  for  the  general  purposes  of  com- 
[ merce,  to  the  exclusion  of  sails ; and  it  has  hitherto  appeared  to  be  requisite 
that  science  should  bestow  upon  the  arts  some  new  method  of  generating 
heat  more  economical  and  compact  than  the  present  one,  before  steam  could 
be  generally  introduced  on  the  ocean.  A long  time  elapsed  before  the  Eng- 
lish steamers  ventured  across  the  Atlantic,  notwithstanding  the  experience 
gained  by  their  sea-practice  on  their  own  shores,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Europe. 
Yet  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  English,  having  no  great  inland  water 
communications  like  ourselves,  were  compelled  by  their  position,  if  they  built 
steamers  at  all,  to  build  sea  steamers,  and  to  this  fact,  and  this  only,  it  is  ow- 
ing, that  they  have  taken  precedence  of  us  in  the  construction  and  manage- 
ment of  sea  steamers — a precedence  which,  we  may  incidentally  observe,  we 
shall  soon  be  prepared  to  dispute,  to  which  it  does  not  become  the  maritime 
genius  of  our  people  to  submit,  and  the  loss  of  which  is  only  delayed,  not 
prevented,  by  a few  failures  in  the  beginning,  such  as  might  be  reasonably 
looked  for  in  new  enterprises,  particularly  among  an  inventive  people  not  dis- 
posed to  copy  tamely  after  others. 

With  all  the  improvements  in  machinery,  and  economy  in  the  use  of  fuel, 
which  have  so  astonishingly  marked  the  progress  of  steam  navigation,  its 
comrnon  routes  are  still  limited.  It  is  only  for  distances  not  exceeding  a 
certain  extent,  that  steam  can  be  advantageously  employed. 

The  use  of  steamers  between  the  great  marts  of  commerce  on  both  sides 
of  the  North  Atlantic,  and  those  in  the  North  and  South  Pacifies,  if  thouo-ht 
of,  has  not  yet  been  projected.  But  the  direct  and  immediate  effect  of  the 
construction  of  the  proposed  road  is  to  bring  these  markets  within  reach  of 
each  other  by  means  of  steam  navigation.  We  are  well  aware  that,  for  many 
*easons,  it  is  neither  desirable  nor  possible  that  the  ordinary  channels  of  trade 
should  be  too  suddenly  closed  or  altered. 

The  vital  circulations  of  commerce  are  not  to  be  rudely  or  unadvisedly  in- 
errupted.  But  in  this  instance,  the  effect  is  to  create  new  channels  without 
lestroying  the  old  ones — to  open  new  avenues  to  enterprise  and  wealth,  and 
'o  supply  new  means  of  providing  for  those  unforeseen  necessities  and  wants 
vhich  have  sprung  from  the  recent  discoveries  in  California. 

It  is  by  such  views  and  reflections  as  are  here  presented,  that  we  have  been 
cd  to  regard  the  construction  of  the  proposed  and  long  thought  of  railroad 
s a pregnant  event  in  the  history  of  commerce.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
eclare  that  we  do  not  speak  of  this  road  as  the  only,  or  even  the  best,  mode 
f transit  between  the  two  oceans.  With  respect  to  others,  as,  for  example, 
lat  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  we  wait  to  have  the  deliberate  opin- 
>ns  of  engineers  concerning  the  feasibility  of  the  excavations,  &c.,  of  hydro- 
raphers  concerning  the  capacity,  safety,  and  facilities  of  approach,  of  the 
arbors  on  each  side  ; and  we  should  also  be  glad  to  learn  the  opinion  of 
'eolo^sts  concerning  the  alluvial  formation  of  these  shores,  and  the  laws  of 
eposit  under  which  it  takes  place — for  it  would  be  a serious  objection  to 


278 


Commerdal  Cities  and  Towns  of  the  United  States: 


such  a j^i^aritic  unclortakiiiLr  that  it  Tnust  })Cfpn  hy  a contest  witli  the  opera- 
tion of  tlic  fundamental  laws  of  nature. 

At  tlie  same  time  tliat  we  are  pre])ared  to  treat tliis,  and  all  similar  projects 
without  prejudice,  and  to  discuss  their  merits  fairly,  w(j  see  in  the  om*,  of  tlm 
niilroad  across  the  isthmus,  the  only  ])resent  practicable  plan,  the  only  one 
tliat  can  be  commenced  without  delay,  the  merits  and  defects  of  which  have 
been  long  known  and  thoroughly  examined,  and  the  only  one  in  which  cap- 
italists are  willing,  with  sufficient  encouragement,  to  embark  immediately. 

As  there  is  no  subject  more  important  than  this,  (of  constructive  commu- 
nication between  the  two  great  oceans,)  or  more  intimat(‘ly  comu;ct(!d  with 
the  purposes  for  which  this  journal  was  established,  we  shall  eiideavor,  from 
time  to  time,  to  keep  our  readers  acquainted  with  the  progrc.ss  of  ojiinion, 
and  of  events  in  relation  to  it. 


Art.  IV.— COMMERCIAL  CITIES  AND  TOWNS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

NUMBER  XV. 

DETROIT,  MICHIGAN.* 

ITS  LOCATION  ON  THE  DETROIT  RIVER,  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  RIVER — THE  DEPTH,  WIDTH,  CUR- 
RENT, AND  NAVIGATION  OF  THE  RIVER,  AND  A COMPARISON  OF  ITS  RISE  AND  FALL  WITH  THE  FLOODS 
IN  SOME  OTHER  LARGE  RIVERS — SETTLEMENT  OF  DETROIT,  AND  NUMBER  OF  ITS  INHABITANTS  AT 
DIFFERENT  PERIODS — ITS  RAILROADS,  AND  FACILITIES  FOR  COMMERCE — ITS  STORES,  DWELLING- 
HOUSES,  HYDRAULIC  WORKS,  CHURCHES  AND  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS,  AND  THE  GREAT  NATURAL  CURIOS- 
ITY PRESENTED  BY  THE  UNITED  STATES  BUILDING — MANUFACTURES  OF  LUMBER — SHIP-BUILDING 

FOUNDRIES — MACHINE-SHOPS,  ETC.,  ETC.,  AND  ITS  ADVANTAGES  AND  FACILITIES  FOR  MANUFACTURING 
BY  STEAM. 

The  city  of  Detroit  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  north-westerly  side  of  the 
Detroit  River,  or  Strait,  extending  along  the  river  more  than  a mile  and  a 
half,  the  centre  of  it  being  about  seven  miles  from  Lake  St.  Clair,  and  eigh- 
teen miles  from  Lake  Erie,  in  north  latitude  42°  20',  and  west  longitude 
from  Washington  city  5°  56'.  The  river  runs  from  Lake  St.  Clair,  to  a point 
about  two  miles  below  the  city,  in  a direction  about  30°  south  of  west,  and 
from  thence  it  runs  nearly  south  to  Lake  Erie.  The  original  bed  of  the 
river  opposite  Detroit,  and  for  a mile  above,  and  about  three  miles  below, 
varied  from  about  48  to  52  chains  in  width,  averaging  about  live-eighths  of  a 
mile  ; the  width  from  the  docks  of  Detroit  to  the  opposite  docks  of  Sand- 
wich being  about  half  a mile.  Lieutenant  M’Comb,  of  the  United  States 
Army,  carefully  sounded  and  surveyed  the  river  in  the  summer  of  1841,  and 
measured  its  depth  and  current  in  numerous  places,  and  at  difterent  times. 
The  depth  between  the  docks  in  June,  1841,  varied  from  about  twelve  to 


* The  following  urticle  was  prepared  for  the  Merchants’  Magazine  by  Ezra  C.  Seaman,  Esq., 
a member  of  the  Detroit  Bar,  and  the  author  of  an  elaborate  work  entitled  “Essays  on  the  Pro- 
gress of  Nations  in  Productive  Industry,  Civilization,  Population, and  Wealth;  illustrated  by  Statistics 
of  Milling,  Agriculture,  Manufactures,  Commerce,  Banking,  Revenues,  Internal  Improvements,  Emi- 
gration, Mortality,  and  Population.”  This  work  is  embraced  in  a volume  of  some  six  hundred  octavo 
pag(!s,  and  cont:uns  a vast  amount  of  important  information,  forming  altogether  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable contributions  that  has  yet  been  made  to  the  literature  and  statistics  of  political  economy.  We 
should  not,  piThajis,  agree  in  all  the  inferences  and  conclusions  of  the  author,  but  his  work  is  highly 
BUggestive,  iind  exceedingly  valuable  as  a book  of  reference. — Kd.  Merchants'  Magazine. 


A A 


L/'  /i  c 


c.  . 


railway  discriminations  and  industrial 

COMBINATIONS. 

In  testifying  before  the  Industrial  Commission  upon  the 
subject  of  transportation,  I made  some  observations  upon  the 
effect  of  rate  discriminations  in  the  building  up  and  perpet- 
uating of  trusts  and  monopolies.  It  has  been  intimated 
that  if  what  was  there  said  could  be  put  into  some  coherent 
form,  it  might  not  be  without  interest  as  a trifling  contribu- 
tion to  a most  interesting  social  problem. 

Few  people  have  any  adequate  conception  of  the  impor- 
tance, in  a commercial  way,  of  slight  changes  in  the  freight 
rate.  Not  long  ago  the  railroads  centering  at  Chicago  im- 
posed a terminal  charge  of  two  dollars  per  car  upon  every 
carload  of  livestock  delivered  at  the  stock  yards  in  that 
city.  The  matter  having  been  brought  before  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission,  this  charge  was  declared  to  be 
unlawful  and  the  carriers  were  ordered  to  desist  from  impos- 
ing it.  They  declined  t®  obey  and  proceedings  were  begun 
in  the  courts  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  this  order.  The 
judge  before  whom  the  case  came,  while  sustaining  at  a pre- 
liminary stage  of  the  proceedings  the  action  of  the  Commis- 
sion, suggested  a doubt  whether  the  relief  sought  was  after 
all  of  much  consequence. 

This  terminal  charge,  applied  to  all  the  carloads  of  live- 
stock entering  Chicago  during  a single  year,  aggregates 
about  $500,000,  and  this  amount  is  collected  year  after  year. 
The  courts  of  that  metropolis  are  continually  called  upon  to 
decide  cases  involving  large  sums  of  money,  but  seldom 
have  they,  or  will  they,  pass  upon  one  of  greater  pecuniary 
importance  than  is  the  question  whether  the  imposition  of 
this  trifling  switching  charge  of  two  dollars  per  carload  is 
lawful. 

Recently  the  Commission  decided  that  grain  rates  from  a 
certain  limited  section  of  the  State  of  Iowa  were  too  high, 

(41) 


42  Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 

and  that  they  should  be  reduced  from  two  to  three  cents  per 
hundred  pounds.  The  first  thought  is,  of  what  practical 
value  can  this  be  to  the  grain  producers  of  that  section  ? 
Yet  a moment’s  consideration  will  make  it  plain  that  it  is 
in  fact  of  great  importance  to  the  farmer.  Without  inquir- 
ing what  effect  a general  reduction  in  grain  rates  might 
have  upon  the  price  of  grain,  it  is  evident  that  a reduction 
from  a circumscribed  area  must  operate  to  raise  the  price  by 
exactly  the  amount  of  the  reduction.  Grain  in  this  section 
would  be  worth  from  one  to  two  cents  per  bushel  more  with 
the  reduced  rate  in  effect  than  it  otherwise  would.  The 
testimony  in  that  case  showed  that  the  average  yield  of  corn 
was  some  thirty  bushels  per  acre.  The  net  money  product 
of  every  acre  of  corn  land  would  therefore  be  increased  by 
this  reduction  in  the  rate  from  thirty  to  sixty  cents,  which 
upon  a six  per  cent  basis  means  a difference  of  from  five  to 
ten  dollars  per  acre  in  the  value  of  such  land  in  that 
vicinity. 

These  two  examples,  which  might  be  indefinitely  multi- 
plied, sufiiciently  illustrate  the  fact  that  a change  in  rates, 
which  when  applied  to  a single  article  or  a single  hundred 
pounds  would  be  insignificant,  is  when  applied  to  the  entire 
volume  of  trafl&c  which  it  concerns  of  the  highest  importance. 

Along  with  this  must  be  kept  in  mind  another  fact,  which 
is  perhaps  of  even  more  fundamental  consequence  in  the 
examination  of  the  particular  question  under  discussion,  and 
that  is  the  extremely  narrow  margin  upon  which  business  is 
transacted  at  the  present  day.  Some  recent  investigations 
of  the  Commission  have  presented  this  in  a most  striking 
light.  Flour  is  to-day  ground  in  this  country  upon  a mar- 
gin of  two  or  three  cents  per  hundred  pounds,  from  four  to 
six  cents  a barrel.  Coal  in  large  quantities  is  handled  from 
the  mine  to  the  consumer  at  a profit  of  five  or  ten  cents  per  ton. 
One-half  cent  a bushel  is  a fair  profit  on  grain.  Such  is  the 
sworn  and  undisputed  testimony. 

Let  the  meaning  of  this  as  applied  to  the  freight  rate  be 


Railway  Discriminations. 


43 


clearly  apprehended.  It  means  that  if  the  grain  dealer  can 
by  any  device  secure  an  advantage  over  his  competitor  of 
one-half  cent  a bushel,  he  thereby  acquires  the  market  as 
against  that  competitor.  If  one  miller  can  deliver  his  flour 
at  two  cents  per  hundred  pounds  cheaper  than  the  competing 
miller,  he  grinds  at  a profit  while  his  competitor  does  busi- 
ness for  nothing.  A concession  of  ten  cents  per  ton  in  the 
freight  rate  on  coal  determines  absolutely  who  shall  and  who 
shall  not  handle  the  product  of  a particular  mine  or  a par- 
ticular locality.  The  same  is  true  of  other  commodities. 

A monopoly  is  by  its  derivation  and  in  its  simplest  defini- 
tion the  giving  to  one  in  the  sale  of  an  article  an  advantage 
which  all  do  not  possess.  Tet  it  be  observed  that  in  the 
production  and  handling  of  the  staple  commodities  about  the 
only  point  at  which  such  advantage  can  be  obtained  is  in 
the  agencies  of  transportation.  Grain  is  an  article  of  prime 
necessity.  Everybody  can  raise  it;  everybody  can  buy  it; 
everybody  can  grind  it;  everybody  can  sell  it;  but  it  must 
be  transported  from  the  railway  station  of  the  producer  to 
that  of  the  consumer,  often  by  one  route,  at  most  by  few 
routes,  and  the  expense  of  this  transportation  is  usually  a 
considerable  part  of  its  price  to  the  consumer.  So  with 
most  of  the  prime  necessities  of  life.  Ordinarily  the  means 
and  methods  of  competition  must  be  open  to  all  alike  ; the 
avenues  of  transportation  are  the  exception. 

Consider  next  how  preferences  are  or  may  be  granted  in 
transportation.  The  obvious  and  simple  way  is  by  the  giv- 
ing of  a special  rate  or  by  the  payment  of  a rebate.  Previous 
to  the  enactment  of  the  act  to  regulate  commerce  this  was 
the  usual  method.  That  act  made  the  giving  of  a lower  rate 
to  one  shipper  than  was  accorded  others  a crime.  Both  the 
carrier  who  grants  the  special  rate  and  the  shipper  wdio 
receives  it  are  liable  to  fine  and  sometimes  imprisonment. 
This  necessarily  worked  a change  in  the  method  of  granting 
such  preferences.  First,  the  tendency  is  to  seek  some  less 
obvious  method  than  the  payment  of  a rebate  under  that 


44 


Annai^  of  the  American  Academy. 


name  or  the  giving  of  the  special  rate  as  such.  In  this  view 
many  devices  have  been  adopted.  These  sometimes  take  the 
form  of  an  elevator  commission;  sometimes  an  excessive  car 
mileage;  sometimes  the  shipper  pays  the  full  interstate  rate 
in  consideration  that  he  shall  receive  preferential  rates 
within  the  state  to  which  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  does 
not  apply. 

Second,  the  effect  is  to  reduce  the  number  of  persons 
with  whom  these  transactions  are  had  to  a minimum.  The 
fewer  people  who  are  engaged  in  the  commission  of  these 
crimes  the  less  the  risk  of  detection.  The  traffic  manager 
prefers  to  deal  with  one  rather  than  many. 

The  central  idea  of  the  trust  is  the  combination  of  large 
amounts  of  capital  in  enormous  transactions.  It  has  money 
with  which  to  build  elevators  and  cars.  It  has  traffic  in  all 
directions  and  under  all  conditions.  It  lacks  apparently  the 
sense  of  right  and  wrong  which  might  actuate  its  agents  if 
they  were  acting  as  individuals.  Many  trusts  go  further. 
They  demand  concessions  which  the  carrier  dare  not  refuse 
for  fear  of  the  punishment  which  may  be  inflicted  by  the 
withdrawal  of  traffic.  Not  long  ago  a prominent  railroad 
president  wrote  to  a friend  who  was  a small  packer:  “ I hope 
the  time  will  come  when  I can  give  you  the  same  rate  as 
your  great  competitor,  but  to-day  I cannot.” 

Now,  putting  these  four  facts  together,  the  great  effect  of 
the  small  concession,  the  narrow  margin  on  which  business 
is  handled,  the  opportunity  and  inducement  of  the  railway 
to  prefer  one  shipper  to  another,  and  the  manner  in  which 
that  preference  must  be  exercised,  what  should  we  naturally 
expect  ? 

Should  we  not  expect  that  the  great  shipper,  and  that 
to-day  is  usually  the  trust,  would  enjoy  these  preferences  at 
the  expense  of  the  small  shipper,  and  that  this  preference, 
wliile  small,  a single  cent  as  applied  to  a bushel  of  corn,  two 
or  three  times  that  upon  a hundred  pounds  of  merchandise, 
would  give  the  market  to  the  one  receiving  it  ? These  small 


Raiway  Discriminati 


45 


sums  often  represent  more  than  the  entire  margin  upon 
which  the  business  is  transacted,  and  are  in  the  aggregate 
millions  of  dollars  annually.  The  unavoidable  result  mUvSt 
be  to  exclude  the  small  competitor  from  thevSe  operations  and 
to  centre  business  in  the  hands  of  the  large  competitor. 

And  what  is  the  fact  ? It  is  well  known  that  for  years 
past  a large  portion  of  the  competitive  railway  traffic  of  this 
country,  especially  those  articles  which  are  moved  in  large 
quantities  and  in  the  handling  of  which  a small  amount  in 
the  freight  rate  is  of  great  consequence,  have  not  been  moved 
upon  the  published  rate.  It  is  an  equally  well-known  fact 
that  during  the  same  time  the  tendency  has  been  to  centre 
the  handling  of  these  articles  in  the  hands  of  comparatively 
few  persons.  The  United  States  exports  annually  enormous 
quantities  of  grain,  but  you  can  count  upon  j^our  fingers  the 
concerns  which  bring  the  bulk  of  it  to  the  American  sea- 
board. We  are  told  that  grain  upon  the  Chicago  market 
is  handled  by  a half  dozen  concerns.  It  is  brought  from 
the  fields  west  of  Chicago  into  that  city  by  as  few.  One 
company  buys  upon  one  line  of  railway  and  nobody  else 
can  buy  there.  Another  upon  another  line.  Exactly  the 
same  thing  is  true  of  beef,  pork,  lard,  provisions  and  almost 
all  those  commodities  which  are  the  necessities  of  life. 

Is  there  any  connection  between  these  facts  ? Is  the  dis- 
crimination in  the  freight  rate  responsible  for  the  concen- 
tration of  businevSS  in  the  hands  of  the  few  ? There  cannot 
be  the  slightest  doubt  of  it.  No  person  at  all  familiar  with 
the  situation  has  any  other  opinion.  Freight  rate  discrimi- 
nations are  the  most  potent  factor  in  the  establishment  and 
continuance  of  great  combinations  of  capital  at  the  present 
time.  It  may  be  doubted  if  a single  one  of  those  monop- 
olies which  have  fastened  themselves  upon  the  country 
in  recent  years  could  have  done  so  in  the  face  of  absolute 
equality  in  the  freight  rate.  I do  not  now  speak  of  this 
epidemic  of  combination  which  has  swept  over  the  business 
world  in  the  last  eighteen  months,  but  of  those  so-called 


46  Annai.s  of  the  American  Academy. 

trusts  in  the  essentials  of  life.  Strip  these  great  combina- 
tions of  all  participation  in  and  all  dominion  over  the  freight 
rate  and  you  take  away  from  them  the  most  important 
advantage  which  they  possess. 

But  how  about  the  Standard  Oil  Company  ? The  repre- 
sentatives of  that  combine  stated  under  oath  before  the 
Industrial  Commission  that  since  the  enactment  of  the  inter- 
state commerce  law  of  1887  it  had  received  no  rebates  and 
accepted  no  special  rates.  Here  then  is  this  typical  trust, 
this,  to  the  popular  apprehension,  arch-monopoly  which 
flourishes  although  it  pays  the  open  rate. 

The  representatives  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company  stated 
that  before  1887  it  received  rebates  in  common  with  other 
shippers.  The  good  fortune  of  that  company  in  those  days 
was  that  its  concessions  far  outran  those  of  its  rivals.  It 
is  generally  understood  that  the  genesis  of  that  institution 
was  railway  favoritism.  Its  competitors  aSvSert  that  it  derives 
just  as  real  assistance  from  the  manipulation  of  freight  rates 
to-day  as  it  ever  has. 

Departure  from  the  published  tariff  is  not  by  any  means 
the  only  method  of  railway  preference.  The  most  grievous 
discriminations  are  often  occasioned  through  the  mal- 
adjustment of  the  rates  themselves.  It  is  in  this  manner 
that  the  Standard  Oil  Company  is  said  to  obtain  its  advan- 
tage to-day. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustration,  take  what  is  called  New 
Haven  territor}^;  that  is,  the  territory  controlled  by  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad  Company,  embrac- 
ing the  southern  part  of  New  England.  This  territory  upon 
most  commodities  takes  substantially  the  Boston  rate.  A 
comparison  of  these  rates  in  1887  with  present  rates  reveals 
a peculiar  fact. 

In  1887  the  rate  from  Cleveland  to  Boston  on  grain  and 
the  products  of  grain  was  twenty -two  cents,  on  iron  articles 
twenty-two  cents,  and  on  petroleum  twenty-two  cents.  The 
rate  in  October,  1899,  was  upon  grain  fifteen  cents,  upon 


Raiway  Discriminations. 


47 


iron  articles  twenty  cents,  and  upon  petroleum  and  its  pro- 
ducts twenty -four  cents.  While  the  freight  rate  generally 
has  declined,  while  the  rate  on  probably  every  other  article 
of  general  consumption  has  declined,  while  the  acual  cost 
of  transportation  has  declined,  we  find  that  the  rate  upon 
petroleum  has  advanced. 

There  is  another  peculiar  fact.  On  most  commodities 
which  are  shipped  from  the  West  into  New  Haven  territory 
there  exists  a through  rate.  In  the  case  of  petroleum  and 
its  products  there  is  no  such  arrangement.  Around  New 
Haven  territory  is  found  a Chinese  wall  beyond  which  no 
carload  of  petroleum  can  penetrate  unless  it  pays  the  local 
rate  over  the  New  Haven  road  to  its  destination.  Grain, 
iron,  coal — almost  everything  may  be  shipped  from  Cleve- 
land into  this  territory  under  a joint  tariff  which  in  amount 
is  substantially  the  same  as  the  Boston  rate,  while  kerosene 
must  pay  the  Boston  rate  to  the  confines  of  that  territory 
and  an  added  local  rate  beyond.  Thus  the  rate  on  a carload 
of  corn  from  Cleveland  to  Boston  was  in  October  fifteen 
cents  per  hundred  pounds  and  to  New  Haven  the  same. 
The  rate  on  petroleum  from  Cleveland  to  Boston  was  twenty - 
four  cents  and  to  New  Haven  thirty-six  cents. 

The  significance  of  these  two  facts  becomes  apparent  when 
we  consider  how  the  petroleum  business  is  handled  in  this 
territory.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  has  extensive  storing 
facilities  at  East  Boston  and  refines  at  seaboard  points,  or 
transports  at  low  cost  the  refined  product  to  such  points  from 
whence  it  is  taken  in  tank  boats  to  Bast  Boston  and  thence 
distributed.  Independent  refiners  at  Cleveland  assert  that 
under  present  freight  rates  they  cannot  compete  with  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  in  this  territory;  if  they  had  the 
former  rate  of  twenty-two  cents  they  might,  if  even  the 
present  Boston  rate  were  applied  as  a through  rate  into  that 
territory  they  might,  but  under  existing  adjustments  they 
are  absolutely  excluded. 

Still  another  circumstance  contributes  to  the  same  end. 


48  Annals  of  the  American  Academy. 

According  to  the  tariffs  of  the  New  Haven  Company  petro- 
leum and  its  products  are  second  class  unless  the  party  to 
whom  it  is  consigned  has  a private  siding  or  a tank  opposite 
the  rails  into  which  he  can  pump  that  petroleum  from  the 
tank  cars,  in  which  case  it  is  fifth  class.  Now,  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  has  these  tanks  and  private  sidings  over  all 
this  territory,  while  comparatively  few  are  owned  by  inde- 
pendent refiners.  Persons  without  these  facilities  must  pay 
the  second-class  rate,  while  the  Standard  Oil  Company  pays 
the  fifth-class  rate.  The  fifth-class  rate  between  Boston  and 
New  Haven  is  ten  cents  per  hundred  pounds;  the  second- 
class  rate  twenty  cents  per  hundred  pounds,  the  difference 
between  the  two  probably  representing  several  times  the 
profit  in  handling  one  hundred  pounds  of  kerosene  oil. 

This  is  an  illustration  of  one  method  by  which  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  freight  rate  helps  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
against  its  competitors.  For  another  and  different  way, 
take  the  comparative  rates  on  petroleum  and  its  products 
from  Cleveland  and  Chicago  to  New  Orleans  and  correspond- 
ing territory.  The  distance  is  somewhat  greater  from  Cleve- 
land. Both  these  cities  are  competitors  in  the  markets  of 
that  territory.  The  demands  of  their  merchants  and  of  the 
railways  serving  the  two  localities  have  established  a general 
relation  in  rates  by  which  a difference  of  about  two  cents 
per  hundred  pounds  in  low  class  freight  is  made  in  favor  of 
Chicago.  Taking  twenty-five  articles  of  the  most  common 
consumption  which  bear  about  the  same  rate  with  petroleum, 
we  find  that  in  almost  every  instance  the  Cleveland  rate  is 
two  cents  per  hundred  pounds  higher  than  the  Chicago  rate. 
Tinseed  oil,  for  instance,  takes  a rate  of  twenty-eight  cents 
from  Cleveland  and  twenty-six  cents  from  Chicago.  When, 
however,  you  reach  petroleum,  you  find  that  while  the  rate 
from  Cleveland  to  New  Orleans  is  thirty-one  cents,  the  rate 
from  Chicago  is  twenty- three  cents,  a difference  four  times 
as  great  as  that  in  case  of  almost  every  other  commodity 
taking  a corresponding  rate.  Now,  there  are  large  inde- 


Raiway  Discriminations. 


49 


pendent  refiners  at  Cleveland.  The  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany has  extensive  refining  works  at  Whiting,  near  Chicago, 
which  takes  the  Chicago  rate,  and  there  are  no  independent 
refiners  in  that  vicinity.  The  Cleveland  refiners  say  that 
this  is  an  unjust  discrimination  against  petroleum  when 
refined  at  Cleveland,  the  purpose  and  effect  of  which  is 
to  deliver  that  southern  territory  over  to  the  Standard  Oil 
monopoly. 

Attention  is  not  called  to  these  facts  for  the  purpose  of 
stirring  up  sentiment  against  trusts  in  general  or  the  Stand- 
ard Oil  Company  in  particular.  With  much  of  this  sort 
which  is  said,  I have  no  sympathy.  The  Standard  Oil 
Company,  so  far  as  I have  observed  in  the  department  with 
which  I have  to  do,  is  no  worse  than  other  trusts,  nor  so  bad 
as  many.  These  discriminations,  if  they  are  discrimina- 
tions, to  which  I have  called  particular  attention,  are  purely 
business  propositions.  The  New  Haven  road  puts  in  these 
tariffs  because  more  revenue  is  yielded  by  them.  Doubtless 
the  Cleveland  lines  are  compensated  in  some  other  way  for 
the  loss  of  traffic  from  there.  The  rates,  such  as  they  are, 
are  open. 

What  I desire  is  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  such  discrimi- 
nations do  exist;  to  fasten  attention  upon  the  importance 
which  they  play  in  the  upbuilding  and  maintaining  of  those 
great  aggregations  of  capital  which  are  thought  to  threaten 
the  welfare  of  the  body  politic;  to  reiterate  that  they  abso- 
lutely shut  out  the  small  shipper.  Before  we  adopt  some  of 
the  radical  measures  which  have  been  suggested  in  dealing 
with  the  trust,  before  we  amend  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  or  enact  laws  which  may  impinge  upon  the 
rights  of  property  or  trammel  our  commercial  development, 
this  phase  of  the  question  should  be  looked  to. 

Just  what  ought  to  be  done  with  the  monopoly  may  be  a 
grave  question,  but  that  our  railways,  those  arteries  through 
which  the  commercial  life  blood  of  this  great  nation  flows, 
should  be  open  to  great  and  small  alike,  admits  of  no 


50  Annai^s  of  the  American  Academy. 

doubt,  and  that  they  are  not  so  open,  admits  of  as  little 
doubt. 

It  may  be  asked  why  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
does  not  prohibit  these  rate  inequalities,  thereby  securing 
equal  treatment  for  all  shippers.  The  answer  is  that  it  is 
powerless  to  do  so  for  reasons  which  have  been  often  stated. 
The  cardinal  purpose  of  the  Act  to  regulate  commerce  is  to 
secure  equal  treatment  for  great  and  small,  but  without  the 
necessary  amendments  the  beneficent  provisions  of  that  Act 
are  a nullity. 

ChareEvS  a.  ProuTy. 

irashington,  D.  C. 


1 


Railroad  and  Canal  Statistics. 


209 


RAILROAD  AND  CANAL  STATISTICS' 


7 CAPACITY  OF  RAILROADS  FOR  BUSINESS. 

The  Reading  Railroad,  which  is  ninety-two  miles  in  length,  transported,  in  the  year 
1845,  800,000  tons  of  coal ; and  in  the  single  month  of  July  last,  104,000  tons.  The  bu- 
siness for  the  year  1846,  is  estimated  at  1,220,000  tons,  which  is  equivalent  to  7,500,000 
bales  of  cotton,  more  than  three  times  the  entire  crop  of  the  United  States.  If  a like 
amount  of  up-freight  is  performed — -and  which  might  have  been  done,  as  the  cars  returned 
empty — we  have  an  example  of  a railroad  nearly  100  miles  in  length,  capable  of  doing  a 
transportation  within  the  year,  equivalent  in  weight  to  six  times  the  cotton  crop  of  the 
United  States,  or  12,000,000  of  bales,  and  which  would  be  equal  to  5,000  ships  of  500 
tons  each,  performing  two  voyages  to  Europe. 

This  business  on  the  Reading  road,  was  performed  at  the  rate  of  one  cent  per  ton  per 
mile,  or  $l  for  100  miles — one-half  of  which  is  shown  to  be  profit.  At  the  same  freight, 
a bale  of  cotton  may  be  brought  from  the  Tennessee  valley.  North  Alabama,  at  fifty  cents 
a bale.  “ Who  can,  with  this  exhibit,”  says  the  Charleston  (S.  C.)  Mercury,  “ doubt  the 
capacity  of  railways  competing  successfully  with  river  navigation,  or  the  ability  to  transport, 
at  remunerating  prices,  western  produce  to  our  south  Atlantic  markets  ? Enterprise  and 
confidence  is  all  that  is  necessary ; and  if  our  southern  cities,  with  all  the  lights  before  them, 
are  resolved  to  remain  in  slumbering  inactivity,  others,  acting  up  to  the  spirit  of  the  age, 
will  enjoy  the  harvest.” 


READING  RAILROAD. 

The  following  are  the  receipts  of  each  of  the  twelve  months  of  the  year  1845,  as  com- 
pared with  the  twelve  months  of  the  preceding  year : — 


184§. 

1844. 

1845-6. 

1844-5. 

June, 

..  $101,493 

$49,066 

December, 

...  $65,172 

$43,066 

July, 

129,502 

63,042 

January, 

40,675 

August, 

127,513 

76,997 

February, 

65,026 

32,495 

September, 

132,612 

72,175 

March, 

96,720 

47,655 

October, 

131,879 

76,476 

April, 

...  155,183 

68,176 

November, 

125,946 

62,197 

May, 

....  144,035 

79,882 

ERIE  CANAL  AND  WESTERN  RAILROAD. 

The  great  State  work  of  Massachusetts,  has  frequently  been  compared  to  that  of  New 
York  State,  as  a means  of  developing  the  resources  and  improving  the  property  of  the 
Commonwealth.  The  analogy  of  the  receipts  in  the  two  cases,  for  the  first  five  years,  is 
rather  impressive : — 

Erie  Canal.  Erie  Canal.  Western  Railroad. 


1825 

.,  $566,000 

1842.... 

..  $1,743,000 

1842.... 

..  $512,688 

1826.... 

..  793,000 

1843.... 

..  2,087,000 

1843.... 

..  573,881 

1827.... 

..  860,500 

1844.... 

..  2,432,000 

1844.... 

..  753,752 

1828.... 

..  838,000 

1845.... 

..  2,620,000 

1845.... 

..  913,478 

1829.... 

..  8lg,000 

1846.... 

..  *976,000 

* The  increase  on  the  Western  road,  thus  far,  in  1846,  is  over  20  per  cent,  giving 
$70,000  for  the  first  six  months,  and  being  at  the  rate  of  $163,000  for  the  year,  making 
the  total,  as  above,  $976,000.  The  expenses  to  the  present  time  have  not  increased, 
— Boston  Courier. 

VOL.  XV. NO.  II. 


14 


210 


Statistics  of  Population, 

COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  RAIEROADS, 

Twenty  years  ago,  a short  road  at  Quincy,  to  carry  marble,  was  all  the  pioneer  we  had 
Now  we  have  nearly  4,000  miles  of  railroad  in  actual  daily  operation  in  tlie  United  States; 
and  a great  deal  more  in  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  materials  of  experience  arc  therefore 
sufficiently  abundant.  The  cost  of  seventy-nine  railroads  in  the  United  States  is  given 
in  a table  published  in  the  American  Railroad  Journal.  The  aggregate  length  of  them 
is  3,723  miles,  and  the  cost  is  ^109,841,400 ; or  ,^29,325  8.5  per  mile. 

In  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia,  785^  miles  cost  but  14,003, 175,  or  $17,919  per  mile  ; 
those  of  North  Carolina  and  Georgia,  583^  miles  long,  cost  .^8,391,723,  or  $14,387  72 
per  mile ; those  of  Georgia,  .337|  miles,  cost  ^5,231,723,  or  ^15,489  per  mile  ; the  Cen- 
tral Railroad  in  Georgia,  190^  miles  long,  cost  ^2,551,723,  or  .^13,570  72  per  mile  ; and 
that  part  of  the  Georgia  Railroad,  of  05  miles,  which  has  been  constructed  of  late  years, 
is  said  to  have  cost  less  than  $12,000  per  mile,  including  an  edge  rail ; or,  as  commonly 
called,  a T rail. 

The  residue  of  the  railroads  on  the  list,  in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  amounting 
to  2,937|  miles  in  length,  cost  $95,788,295,  or  $32,033  23  per  mile. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  MILK  ON  THE  ERIE  RAILROAD. 

The  following  statement  of  the  revenues  ensuing  from  the  transportation  of  the  single 
article  of  milk,  for  the  four  years  ending  Dec.  31,  1845,  is  derived  from  the  books  of  the 
New  York  and  Erie  Railroad  Company  : — 

1842.  184S.  1844.  184§. 

$3,430  72  $18,497  40  $28,055  08  '$30,694  20 


STATISTICS  OF  POPULATION, 

IMMIGRATION  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  following  statement  of  the  number  of  immigrants  who  have  arrived  at  the  port  of 
New  York  during  the  six  months  commencing  on  the  1st  of  January,  1846,  and  ending 
on  the  30th  of  June,  is  derived  from  the  books  of  the  United  States  Revenue  Barge  Of- 
fice, under  the  charge  of  Captain  Thorn : 

January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June. 

1,138  661  4,000  7,043  18,954  18,834 

Showing  a total  of  50,631  for  the  six  months  ending  June  30th,  1846.  The  number 
of  immigrants,  according  to  the  same  authority,  for  the  six  corresponding  months  of  1845^ 
was  37,809  ; being  an  increase  in  favor  of  the  first  six  months  of  1846,  of  12,820. 

A letter  in  the  Washington  Union,  from  Hanover,  Germany,  May  23d,  1846,  esti- 
mates the  number  of  emigrants  to  the  United  States,  from  Europe,  during  the  present 
year,  at  not  less  than  200,000.  Many  families  in  affluent  circumstances,  the  writer  says, 
arc  quitting  Holland  for  our  shores.  Twenty  thousand  persons,  chiefly  French  or  Swiss, 
also  will  embark  at  Havre.  Forty  thousand  Germans,  at  the  lowest  computation,  will 
sail  from  Bremen,  three  or  four  thousand  from  Hamburg,  as  many  more  from  Rotter- 
dam, and  four  or  five  thousand  from  Antwerp.  These,  with  thirty  thousand  from  Ire- 
land, the  writer  believes,  will  carry  with  them  a capital  exceeding  $20,000,000. 


Railroads  and  their  Future. 


183 


It  is,  therefore,  perfectly  apparent  that  no  one  of  these  qualities  can  be 
in  such  wise  described  as  to  be  of  any  other  utility  than  what  may  serve 
to  make  one  acquainted  with  the  conditions  on  which  they  depend,  and 
to  show  the  importance  of  the  whole  taken  together^  in  applying  them  to 
a particular  variety  of  wine. 

The  proportion  of  water,  alcohol,  and  extract,  contained  in  wine  may 
be  determined  by  evaporating  a known  quantity  of  wine  into  a receiver. 
The  water  and  alcohol  being  thus  collected  together  may  be  separated 
by  distillating,  and  their  relative  proportions,  and  also  the  weight  of  the 
fixed  principles  or  crude  extract  left  upon  evaporation,  known.  Take, 
for  example,  100  drams  of  wine,  evaporate  to  dryness,  the  weight  of  the 
residue  is  found  to  be  20  drams,  showing  the  amount  of  water  and  alcohol 
to  be  80.  Now  distil  off  the  alcohol,  and  there  remains  say  72  drams  of 
water.  The  result  of  this  operation  would  be  in  the  100  parts,  of  water, 
72;  extract,  20;  alcohol,  8. 

It  is  in  this  manner  that  the  relative  proportion  of  these  main  consti- 
tuents in  wine  may  be  ascertained.  If,  therefore,  a type  of  wine  is  found 
to  give  the  above  proportions,  and  a suspected  example  purporting  to  be 
of  the  same  character,  is  found  to  leave  but  18  per  cent  of  extract,  and  if 
on  distillation  only  7 per  cent  of  alcohol  is  obtained,  proof  is  pretty  clear 
that  the  wine  in  question  has  been  diluted  with  water. 

The  quantity  of  extract  found  by  Mr.  Filhol  in  the  chief  wines  of  the 
department  of  Haute  Garonne,  in  France,  is  found  to  vary  from  19  to  25 
per  cent,  or  a mean  of  22  per  cenf* 


ArL  V.— RAILROADS  AND  THEIR  FUTURE. 

Freeman  Hunt,  Editor  of  the  Merchants*  Magazine  and  Commercial  Review: — 

Sir: — Now  that  the  “crisis”  is  past,  and  the  clouds  which  lowered  so 
gloomily  over  the  commercial  horizon  for  a few  months  are  breaking 
away,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  lessons  taught  by  the  overwhelming 
panic  of  1857  may  not  be  altogether  lost  upon  the  country.  As  was 
natural,  when  the  first  shock  of  the  disaster  had  somewhat  abated,  men 
looked  around  them,  and  began  to  inquire,  one  of  another,  for  the  cause* 
which  had  led  to  so  sudden  and  unexpected  a revulsion.  As  if  by  common 
consent,  it  was  voted  that  the  railways  were  the  authors  of  all  the  mischief, 
and  the  bears  of  the  Exchange,  who  had  so  tenderly  nourished  this  idea 
in  the  public  mind,  themselves  became  terrified  as  stocks  and  bonds  went 
tumbling  down  like  a mighty  avalanche,  and  threatened  to  engulf  them 
in  an  unfathomable  abyss.  The  veil  which  had  for  so  long  concealed  the 
blundering  incapacity  of  presidents  and  directors  of  some  leading  and 
favorite  lines  was  rudely  torn  away  by  the  fury  of  the  hurricane,  and 
stockholders  stood  aghast  at  the  spectacle  revealed  before  them.  The 
alarming  inquiry  followed,  “ Is  the  American  railway  system  after  all  a 
failure^  as  an  investment  for  capital!’  A pregnant  question  truly,  when 
we  remember  that  more  than  five  hundred  millions  of  dollars  are  at  stake 
upon  the  answer! 

That  a considerable  proportion  of  the  vast  sums  expended  in  the  build- 
ing of  railways  in  the  United  States  during  the  last  twenty  years  has  been 


* Erratum. — On  page  49  of  last  number,  in  last  line,  for  “ Madeira”  read  “ Malvasia.” 


184 


Railroads  and  their  Future. 


furnislied  rather  with  a view  to  collateral  advanta^^es  than  to  any  ]»rofit8 
U))OJi  the  stock  is  well  known  ; and  it  is  e<]nally  true  that  the  contrihntors 
liave  it)  many  (;ases  heing’  more  than  reimhnrsed  l)y  the  eidiain-ed  values 
of  their  |»ro]>erty,  conse<jnen(  ujton  the  construction  of  railwavs  near  tlicit). 
l>nt  it  is  doubtful  whether  these  motives  alone  would  liave  been  suHic.ient 
to  secure  the  completion  of  any  of  the  lonjr  lines  of  railway  now  traversing 
the  country  in  every  direction,  without  tlie  aid  of  another  larjuje  eJass  of 
contributors,  who  were  induced  to  embark  in  these  enterpiises  under  the 
belief  that  they  would  be  )»rolitable  investments  for  capital.  In  the  earlier 
stao’es  of  railway  experience  this  belief  was  fortified  by  the  success  of  some 
of  the  })rincij)al  lines  then  in  o])eration,  and  so  railway  buildinij^  has  been 
going  on  for  twenty- five  years  until  a thousand  millions  of  d<dlars  have  been 
expended  upon  them  in  tlie  United  States,  about  one-half  of  which  is  repre- 
sented by  bonds  and  debts,  and  the  remainder  by  the  capital  stock.  These 
bonds  are  mostly  held  abroad,  and  the  stock  at  home.  To  the  liolders  of  the 
latter  belong  the  exclusive  control  of  the  government  of  tlie  various  com- 
panies, while  the  former  stand  as  preferred  creditors,  and  are  the  first  re- 
cipients of  the  profits  derived  from  railway  operations,  to  the  extent  of 
their  annual  percentage  of  interest.  So  long,  therefore,  as  the  managers 
of  any  railway  coi-poration  are  able  to  jirovide  for  this  interest,  the  bond- 
holder has  no  right,  and  but  little  inducement  if  the  right  existed,  to  in- 
quire into  the  internal  administration  of  its  atiairs. 

Such  is  the  activity  of  inland  commerce  that,  even  under  the  most  in- 
competent management,  the  majority  of  our  railways  earn  and  pay  the 
interest  upon  their  bonded  debts  with  a fair  degree  of  punctuality  ; con- 
sequently the  market  values  of  this  class  of  railway  securities  generally 
approximate  towards  jiar,  while  a few  favorites  sometimes  command  a 
premium.  With  the  “stock”  the  case  is  far  different;  after  discharging 
the  preferred  liability  there  is  often  nothing  left  for  dividends,  and  the 
investment  at  once  becomes  a “ fancy.”  Some  roads,  after  years  of  seem- 
ing prosperity,  with  receipts  counting  by  millions,  are  now  reduced  to 
this  condition,  while  it  is  discov^ered  that  the  “ construction  account”  has 
been  the  open  door  through  which  directors  have  invited  stockholders  to 
walk  in  to  receive  dividends  that  had  never  been  honestly  earned.  Other 
lines  have  managed  to  create  large  floating  debts,  which  have  become  too 
heavy  to  float  any  lon^’er,  and  bid  fair  to  sink  the  stock  altogether  out  of 
sight.  This  is  the  present  status  of  the  leading  roads  that  have  been 
under  “Wall-street  management”  for  any  considerable  period.  Their 
cost  has  been  swollen  in  some  cases  to  more  than  double  the  original 
amount  when  completed  ; enormous  sums  have  been  worse  than  wasted  in 
negotiations  ; and  in  short,  they  have  been  “ flnanciered”  to  death,  and 
their  stock  will  hereafter  be  quoted  nowhere,  unless  perhaps  on  the  books 
of  the  coroner. 

This  brings  us  back  to  the  question  before  propounded — are  these  lines 
only  bowing  to  the  decree  of  manifest  (railway)  destiny,  and  descending 
to  the  inevitable  bourne  from  which  no  dividend  returns  ? Is  the  same 
fate  to  overtake,  sooner  or  later,  all  the  rest,  until  five  hundred  millions  of 
stock  shall  bo  extinguished  forever  ? The  answer  to  these  questions,  in  our 
judgment,  depends  upon  stockholders  themselves. 

\Ve  are  aware  that  the  clamor  against  railway  stocks  is  universal,  and 
that  it  is  the  fashion  to  decry  them  without  discrimination.  Notwith- 
standing, and  ]>resunq)tuous  as  the  o[)inion  may  seem,  we  do  not  hesitate 


Railroads  and  their  Future. 


1S5 


to  express  our  belief  that — with  all  the  reckless  folly  of  managers,  and  the 
shipwreck  they  have  made  of  stockholders’  interests — three-fourths  of  the 
lines  in  the  United  States,  well  located  for  traffic,  may  yet  be  rescued  from 
the  annihilation  which  seems  impending  over  them,  and  be  made  to  yield 
as  permanent  and  substantial  dividends  as  the  like  capital  invested  in 
banks,  manufactures,  or  other  favorite  enterprises. 

In  American  railway  management  the  administration  is  confided  to  a 
Board  of  Directors,  which  is  generally  composed  of  men  chosen  for  tlieir 
personal  wealth,  influence,  or  respectable  standing  in  society.  These  gen- 
tlemen, being  usually  engaged  in  active  private  pursuits,  and  receiving  no 
compensation  for  their  services  as  Directors,  could  not  of  course  be 
expected  to  devote  much  time  to  the  affairs  of  the  stockholders.  They 
however  select  from  among  themselves  a President,  upon  whom  is  de- 
volved the  active  executive  management  of  the  concern.  This  officer  is 
supposed  to  devote  his  entire  time  and  talents  to  the  service  of  the  com- 
pany, and  receives  accordingly  a suitable  compensation.  Unfortunately  ^ 
the  salary  attached  to  this  office  is  tempting  enough  to  make  it  attractive 
to  some  one  of  the  many  very  respectable  old  fogies  who  turn  up  in  every 
community  whenever  a comfortable  pension  is  in  prospect;  and  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  through  a little  electioneering  management,  the  post  is 
secured  to  some  excellent  individual  without  the  remotest  reference  to  his 
personal  fitness  for  the  important  and  responsible  duties  assigned  him. 
Extraordinary  as  the  fact  may  be,  it  is  a matter  of  every  day  occurrence 
in  railway  history,  that,  in  the  choice  of  Directors  and  Presidents,  stock- 
holders ignore  all  the  rules  that  govern  human  action  in  other  depart- 
ments of  life,  and  readily  place  their  vast  interests  in  the  charge  of  men 
utterly  devoid  of  the  first  elements  of  railway  knowledge,  and  unqualified 
by  age,  previous  education,  and  pursuits,  to  attain  to  them.  As  a natural 
consequence,  on  such  a road,  the  President  is  dependent  upon,  and  really 
controlled  by,  a corps  of  subordinate  officers  and  agents,  who,  having  no 
direct  responsibility  to  the  stockholders,  feel  neither  pride  nor  interest 
in  the  skillful  management  of  its  aftairs. 

When  stockholders  look  beyond  the  ranks  of  honorable  judges,  retired 
politicians,  or,  worse  than  either,  celebrated  financiers,  and  select  young, 
practical,  energetic,  talented  men  of  business,  who  have  reputations  to 
create  and  an  honorable  ambition  to  stimulate  them,  a long  step  will  be 
taken  in  the  right  direction.  Indeed,  it  is  not  perhaps  too  much  to  say 
that  the  responsibility  for  the  failure  of  many  railroad  enterprises  to 
reward  “the  promise  of  their  dawn,”  is  justly  chargeable  to  Boards  of 
Directors,  who  have  confided  (either  from  ignorance  or  improper  motives) 
the  chief  executive  administration  to  men  totally  incompetent  for  the 
peculiar  duties  of  the  station.  Scores  of  men  can  be  found  to-day,  scat- 
tered in  various  positions  over  the  roads  of  the  country,  who  have  the 
ability  and  knowledge  which,  placed  in  the  executive  chair,  would  soon 
gladden  the  hearts  of  stockholders  with  far  different  results  than  those 
generally  chronicled  in  the  journals  of  the  day. 

We  enlarge  upon  this  point,  for  we  believe  that  herein  lies  the  key  to 
a great  practical  reform  in  railway  management.  The  Presidency  of  a 
railroad  company  is  not  a cushioned  easy  chair  for  indolence  to  loll  in  for 
the  enjoyment  of  a comfortable  nap,  but  is,  or  should  be,  emphatically  the 
post  of  action.  With  sound  judgment,  quick  perception,  and  fair  admin- 
istrative talent,  the  executive  of  a railway  should  combine  mercantile 


18G 


The  Railroads  and,  Canals  of  New  York. 

metliod,  and  attention  to  detail,  with  active  husineRs  habits,  and  filiould 
exercise  a sleepless  viirilance  over  the  whole  operations  of  the  company, 
in  all  their  varied  relations. 

Tn  running  onr  eyes  over  the  long  list  of  railways  in  America,  and 
noting  the  tew  lines  here  and  there  which  have  proven  a succesR,  we  shall 
find — not  that  it  is  due  to  the  fortunate  routes  they  occu])y,  nor  that  they 
enjoy  a larger  traffic,  or  have  any  specially  favorable  local  influenc^es 
to  explain  their  advantages — hut  that  they  have  men  at  the  helm  who 
comprehend  the  duties  of  their  position,  and  are  adapted  to  all  its  re- 
quirements. 

Let  stock-holders,  then,  discard  partisan  feeling  from  their  annual  elec- 
tions, and  select  the  right  men  for  the  right  places.  Let  them  order  the 
“construction  account”  to  he  closed,  if  it  be  a complete  road,  at  once  anrl 
forever;  or,  if  unfinished,  when  the  last  rail  is  laid  and  it  is  fully  ■efjui[)ped 
for  service.  Let  them  prohibit  fioating  debts,  and  establish  a renewal 
fund  to  cover  annual  depreciation  of  every  kind,  and  let  I’residents  and 
Directoi's  refiect  that  dividends  depend  not  upon  financiering  operations, 
but  upon  the  earnings  of  their  locomotives  and  cars,  and  economy  of  ex- 
penses in  the  details  of  management. 

When  stockholders  shall  determine  to  enforce  these  considerations,  rail- 
way stocks  will  no  longer  languish  under  the  frowns  of  public  disfavor, 
but  will  rank  side  by  side  wdth  other  substantial  and  profitable  investments 
of  capital,  and  railways  in  America  wall  be  no  longer  a doubtful  problem. 


Art.  VL— THE  R/ULROADS  AND  CANALS  OF  NEW  YORK. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  AND  ERIE  AND  THE  NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  RAILROADS  TO  THE 
COMMERCE  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK,  AS  INDUSTRIAL  MACHINES,  FOR  THE  TRANSPORTA- 
TION OF  FREIGHT  AND  PASSENGERS,  AS  COMPARED  BY  TH6  ANNUAL  GROSS  RECEIPTS  OP 
THESE  ROADS,  WITH  THE  TOLLS  AND  RECEIPTS  ON  THE  ERIE  AND  LATERAL  CANALS. 

To  Freeman  Hunt,  Editor  of  the  Merchant^  Magazine : — 

Dear  Sir  : — A distinguished  and  intelligent  merchant,  of  “ Major 
Dowming  memory,”  presiding  at  a meeting  of  the  stock  and  bond  holders 
of  the  New  York  and  Erie  Railroad,  last  fall  in  New  York,  took  the  view 
— and  by  no  means  an  extravagant  one,  in  calling  on  the  citizens  of  New 
York  to  support  this  w-ork — “ that  this  road  was  as  important  to  the  pros- 
perity and  commerce  of  the  city  of  New  York,  to  reach  the  grain  and 
provision  regions  of  the  West,  as  was  the  j^assage  to  the  ocean  by  the 
Narrows.  That  it  was  of  more  advantage  to  her,  than  the  Erie  Canal,  as 
it  was  open  the  entire  year.” 

To  give  a view  of  the  importance  to  the  commerce  and  industry  of 
our  State  by  our  canals,  as  compared  with  the  Erie  and  Central  Railroads 
— (the  latter  ignored  by  Mr.  C.  A.  Davis,  by  some  obliquity  of  vision,  like 
many  of  liis  associates,  with  their  eyes  only  fixed  on  the  New  York  and 
Erie  liailroad,)  a few  facts  and  figures,  principally  from  the  last  report 
of  the  Central  liailroad,  will  suliice  to  show  that  for  certainty  and  celerity, 
and  this  too  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  the  railways  in  this  State,  as  well 
as  beyond  us  in  (Jhio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  1 may  add  elsewhere,  are 


The  Railroads  and  Canals  of  New  Yorlc. 


isY 

gradually  and  surely  trencliing  on,  and  curtailing  the  tolls  and  receipts 
from  canals.  They  are,  in  fact,  destined  finally  to  supersede  them,  with 
the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  Erie  and  Oswego  Canals,  connecting,  as 
they  do,  inland  seas  with  the  ocean.  There  is  a hope,  however,  for  these 
State  works,  that  the  increase  of  tonnage,  transported  through  the  State 
of  New  York,  is  destined  in  all  probability  to  increase  faster  than  our 
avenues  and  facilities  to  transmit  tonnnge  and  passengers  to  and  from  the 
great  commercial  center  of  this  continent,  if  not  of  the  world,  situated,  as 
it  is,  nearly  midway  betw^een  Europe  and  Asia,  at  the  outlet  of  the  only 
depression  of  the  Alleghany  ridge — at  the  Little  Falls  and  the  Highlands, 
connected  as  New  York  is,  with  a continuous  line  of  railways,  that  have 
progressed,  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  link  by  link,  until  they  have 
bridged  the  Mississippi,  reached  the  city  of  Iowa,  and  are  in  the  course 
of  construction  to  Council  Blufis,  on  the  Missouri,  thence  up  the  valley  of 
that  river  to  the  portage,  between  the  sources  of  this  stream  and  the 
Columbia  River,  where  we  have  the  lowest  depression  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains ; while  down  the  valley  of  this  water  course,  to  its  mouth,  and 
tlie  admirable  ports  on  the  Straits  of  Fuca,  is  a line  that  will  still 
settle  itself  from  the  admirable  grain  and  grass  lands  on  the  whole  route. 
These  facts  leave  little  doubt  in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  investigated 
the  subject,  and  have  read  Edwin  F.  Johnson’s  (chief  engineer,)  and  Gov. 
Stevens’  reports,  that  this  route,  and  at  no  very  distant  day — even  if  un- 
aided by  the  General  Government — is  destined  to  be  the  main  avenue  and 
connection  Avith  Eastern  Asia  and  the  possessions  of  Russia,  through  Prussia 
to  the  Atlantic. 

This  is  no  fancy  sketch.  It  is  sure  to  be  realized.  Then,  as  the  New 
York  Evtning  Post  has  predicted,  “the  commercial  center  of  the  world 
wdll  pass  from  London  to  New  York.” 

“The  Grand  Canal,”  was  a great  work  when  first  projected,  and  started 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  city  of  New  York.  This  would  have  been  accele- 
rated 50  years  had  the  recommendation  of  Col.  John  Stevens,  of  Hoboken, 
to  Canal  Commissioners  Livingston,  Morris,  and  Clinton,  in  “ documents 
tending  to  prove  the  superior  advantages  of  railways  over  canal  naviga- 
tion, printed  by  T.  & J.  Swords,  1812,”  been  adopted.  At  that  early 
period,  among  other  reasons,  he  took  the  sound  position,  viz. : — 

“Fourth.  These  railways,  from  the  nature  of  their  construction,  will 
be  free  from  numerous  casualties  to  which  canals  are  liable. 

Fifth.  The  expense  of  transportation  would  be  much  less  than  on  a 
canal  of  the  best  construction. 

To  prove  this,  a summary  calculation  v/ill  be  necessary.” 

He  then  demonstrates  his  5th  position  as  clear  as  the  47th  problem  of 
Euclid  ; he  describes  the  locomotor,  and  the  principle  of  adhesion,  for 
M'hich  Stevenson  got  |2,500  from  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railroad 
Company,  for  inventing!!  (in  1829,)  that  which  Stevens  described  in 
1811. 

Had  Mr.  Stevens  been  listend  to,  as  a sane  man,  by  the  great  men 
named,  and  their  puerile  objections  against  railways  been  examined  into, 
(stated  in  the  “documents,”)  the  State  and  city  of  New  York  would  have 
been  half  a century  in  advance  of  her  present  position,  in  population  and 
commerce,  as  I contend — railways  now  make  cities,  not  water  courses. 
In  evidence  of  this  view,  look  to  the  merchants  of  New  Orleans,  calling 
for  a railway  up  the  Mississippi  to  St.  Louis.  Of  late,  trade  and  travel 


188 


The  Railroads  and,  Canals  of  New  York. 

have  been  drawn  up  and  from  the  ]\Iississij»j)i,  niaiidy  to  our  Ibie  and 
Cemral  Ibiilroad,  for  certainty  and  (telerity,  at  all  sea.  odh. 

(dii(;a(ro  is  the  greatest  I’ec-eiving  and  distiihuting  city  in  the  world  for 
gram,  arising  from  her  numeious  laili'oads,  j)enetrating  the  rich  praiibis 
of  the  West  in  every  direction.  It  is  the  railroads,  radiating  from  iJo.ton 
and  from  New  York,  that  is  ])ushing  them  ahead  of  all  other  sea  hoard 
cities.  ldiiladel])hia,  in  a measure,  is  tributary  to  New  York,  even  with 
the  partial  facilities,  furnished  by  the  Camden  and  Amboy  Railroad  in  its 
present  equijunent  to  carry  treight.  TJiis  aibes  from  this  company  being 
obliged,  by  family  influence,  to  take  the  burden  of  tlie  Ifelaware  and 
Raritan  Canal  on  them,  when  this  canal,  7 feet  by  70,  did  not  j)ay  one 
])er  (;ent  on  its  cost,  ^3,000,000.  It  now  divides  « ])er  c,ent  per  annum, 
paid  from  the  earnings  of  the  railway,  who  drive  the  bulky  articles  and 
coal  to  the  canal,  by  asking  exorbitant  ]»rices.  Tlie  railway  has  not 
equip])ed  itself  properly  for  freight,  otherwise  this  (company  could  have 
swept  the  entire  coasting  trade  from  I'liiladelphia  to  New  York,  as  well  as 
the  tonnage  now  transported  on  the  canal. 

After  the  completion  of  the  Erie  Canal,  (182o,)  but  with  an  error,  or 
more  probable  cheat,  of  nine  inches  in  the  level  and  bench  marks  between 
the  Mohawk  feeder  at  Rome  and  Oriskany,  which  finally  filled  up  to  less 
than  three  feet  water  in  the  canal,  and  was  the  main  cause  for  the  en- 
largement, and  also  to  cut  off  the  project  of  the  Hudson  by  a steamboat 
canal,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Mohawk,  by  Oneida  Lake  and  river  to 
Oswego — was  the  introduction  of  the  packet,  and  semi-packets,  that 
carried  15  to  20  tons,  and  any  quantity  of  extra  baggage  at  very  low 
rates.  “ This  luxurious  mode  of  traveling,”  as  it  was  called,  while  sleeping 
on  shelves  three  deep,  superseded  the  admirable  line  of  post  coaches 
then  traveling  daily  between  Albany  and  Buffalo.  We  find  by  a report 
of  the  Canal  Auditor  to  tlie  last  Legislature,  Senate  Doc.  No.  10,  “the 
tolls  on  these  passages  added  largely  to  the  revenues  of  the  State.  In 
1836,  they  were  nearly  $100,000;  in  1840,  $36,815  ; in  1855,  $1,228, 
and  in  1856,  they  touch  zero,  (0)  in  their  competition  with  the  railways 
parallel  to  them.” 

The  emigrant  and  the  poor  man,  whose  time  was  his  only  capital,  to- 
wlt,  the  saving  of  eight  days  in  time,  and  for  food,  was  more  than  suffi- 
cient, as  experience  has  proved,  for  the  poor  man  to  take  the  railway — the 
better  industrial  machine — even  if  a passage  was  given  to  him  by  the 
canal. 

As  the  several  links  of  railways  in  the  line  from  Albany  to  Buffalo, 
through  our  populous  villages  and  cities  were  completed,  (without  refer- 
ence to  its  location  for  a freight  railroad,)  the  inland  storekeeper  was  seen 
ill  the  spring  and  fall,  and  soon,  oftener,  with  a large  shoe  trunk,  to  carry 
the  baggage  that  he  now  puts  into  a carpet  bag,  visiting  the  city  of  New 
York  “to  fill  up.”  On  his  return  he  was  sure  to  have  two  or  more  large 
trunks  as  “extra  baggage” — or,'all  the  trunks  but  one,  palmed  off  on  his 
Country  cousins,  as  their  baggage,  thus  to  avoid  the  State  tolls  This  was 
stojtped  by  the  agents  of  the  Canal  Board.  The  public  in  the  interior 
Hooded  the  Legislature,  it  maybe  recollected,  with  petitions  to  compel 
the  central  line  of  railways  to  carry  “extra  baggage  as  a great  conveni- 
eiKMj  and  advantage  to  commerce.”  They  were  answered — as  appears  by 
the  stiitiite  book — “ you  may  carry  and  incur  the  responsibility  of  extra 
baggage,  jirovided  you  do  not  charge  for  it.” 


The  Railroads  and  Canals  of  New  YorJc. 


189 


Again,  petitions  came  to  the  Legislature,  asking  “ to  permit  railways  to 
carry  freight,  generally,  paying  canal  tolls.’’  They  were  answered  alter 
much  delay  ; yes,  you  can  carry  freight  during  the  months  the  canal  is 
closed,  (and  in  fact  after  tlie  State  had  got  the  tolls  on  all  that  was  worth 
carrying,)  provided  you  pay  us  full  canal  tolls.  This,  it  was  evident, 
would  not  answer  or  pay  the  railroads  to  equip  their  roads  with  motive 
power,  rolling-stock,  and  warehouses,  more  expensive,  to  a great  degree, 
than  the  rolling-stock  required  to  convey  passengers,  who  loaded  and  un- 
loaded the  passenger  cars.  In  addition  to  this,  thei’e  were  six  separate  in- 
corporations, who  could  not  act  as  a unit,  or  with  safety  incur  the  res- 
ponsibility of  transporting  freight,  with  a decided  responsibility. 

Again,  petitions  were  pressed  on  the  Legislature,  “ that  the  central  line 
of  railways  be  permitted  to  carry  freight  the  whole  year,  paying  full  canal 
tolls,  as  they  were  a great  convenience  in  carrying  provisions  and  perishable 
articles  that  could  not  go  by  the  slow  canal.”  The  State  Engineers,  by 
their  reports,  certified  to  the  public  (a  disgrace  to  their  intelligence,  if  nut 
to  their  integrity,  as  guardians  of  the  supposed  interests  of  the  State — 
under  the  policy  we  were  then  pursuing  to  make  railways  subservient  to 
the  enlargement  of  the  canals,)  in  substance,  “ that  the  State  had  nothing 
to  iear  in  a competition  with  railways — they  would  carry  a few  valuable, 
light,  and  perishable  articles,  but  that  they  were  not  adapted  to  carry  Hour 
and  general  tonnage.”  Our  State  Engineer,  Mr.  McAlpine,  went  so  far  as 
to  say  in  nearly  so  many  words,  “that  it  would  take  six  double  track  rail- 
ways by  the  side  of  the  Erie  Canal  to  do  its  business.”  Fro  pudor. 

I now  come  to  the  point  for  which  I mainly  took  the  pen — “ to  show 
the  importance  of  the  New  York  and  Erie  and  Central  Kailroads,  as  in- 
dustrial machines  for  transportation  of  freight  and  passengers,  by  their  re- 
ceipts, as  compared  with  the  annual  recei|)ts  by  our  canals.” 

The  Erie  Canal,  with  its  laterals,  is  899  miles  in  length.  The  New 
York  and  Erie  Railroad  is  464  miles  from  Lake  Erie  to  Jersey  City,  and 
the  Central,  300  miles  from  Buffalo  to  iVlbany.  These  two  works,  with 
their  rolling-stock  and  warehouses,  have  cost  seventy-five  millions  of 
dollars.  The  canals,  when  enlarged  as  now  progressing,  with  boats,  horses, 
and  warehouses,  will  exceed  this  sum,  and  probably  not  fall  short  of  one 
hundred  millions. 

Let  us  see,  by  their  receipts,  how  these  railroads  compare  with  our  State 
canals,  as  yielding  facilities  to  the  traveling  and  trading  public.  The 
railways  are  only  in  their  A B C’s,  in  learning  their  lessons  in  transport- 
ing freight.  The  Central  Road,  and  I may  add  the  Erie,  have  done 
wonders  in  their  management  in  carrying  freight,  in  their  present  state 
and  equipment,  carrying,  as  they  have  done  the  last  year,  upwards  of  four 
millions  of  passengers,  and  1,600,000  tons  of  every  variety  of  articles,  over 
grades  that  may  be  much  improved,  ^particularly  those  of  the  Central 
Railroad. 

It  appears,  the  central  line  was  released  by  the  Legislature  of  1851, 
from  canal  tolls,  to  commence  January,  1852.  They  then  commenced  to 
contract  to  build  freight-engines  and  cars.  The  act  for  consolidating  the 
several  railroad  incorporations  from  Albany  to  Buffalo,  to  make  them  a 
unit,  under  one  board  of  directors,  and  without  which  they  could  not  well 
have  incurred  the  responsibility  of  freighting,  did  not  take  effect  until 
the  year  1853,  so  that  from  this  period  of  four  years  it  is  only  necessary 
to  show  the  rapid  increase  of  receipts  on  this  line,  and  the  falling  off  of 


190 


The  Railroads  and  Canals  of  New  York. 

oiir  receipts  or  our  caiuils,  since  1847,  wlien  they  were  at  their  hipfhest, 
to  [(resent  n view  of  the  estimation  which  the  [(rodncer  and  consumer — 
and  I may  add  tlie  hanks,  in  yielding  facilities  to  j^et  j)ro<lnce  to  market 
— considered  each  class  of  imjn’ovement.  It  is  a jdain,  simple  test. 

In  1847,  the  receijits  by  the  State,  in  tolls  and  water  rents,  from  all 
canals  was, .^3,0:34, 8a0  ; in  1850,  they  had  ^rradnally  fallen  to  sg^2,742,350  ; 
in  1857,  they  had  gradually  fallen  to  ^^2, 014, 548;  showing  a falling  off 
in  one  year,  of  $727,808;  and  in  ten  years,  of  $1 ,002,302.' 

‘‘  In  1853,  there  were  037,748  tons  of  freight,  the  [(rodnee  of  this  State, 
delivered  at  tide-water  by  the  Erie  Canal,  ainl  in  1855,  there  was  only 
32  (,839  tons  of  the  like  [irodnce  arriving  the  same  vvay.  Decrease  in 
ten  years,  300,909  tons.”  These  ollicial  statements  (Senate  1 >oc.,)  speak 
for  themselves. 

It  is  estimated  that  tlie  average  of  tlie  canal  forwarder  for  freight,  is 
not  generally  e(jnal  to  the  State  charge  for  tolls.  We  will,  however,  call 
it  so,  and  double  the  receiids  of  the  last  year — $2,014,458  to  15th  I)e- 
ceinl)er,  (instead  of  tlie  liscal  year  30th  Sejitember,)  and  we  have 
$1,029,09(>  as  tlie  receipts  for  freights  on  4,000  canal  boats,  and  the  gross 
earning  of  say  10,000  liorses  ancl  full  20,000  hands  on  the  boats  to  earn, 
ill  round  numbers,  four  millions  of  dollars. 

By  the  late  Annual  Report  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad  Company, 
to  the  State  Engineer,  under  oath,  we  find  this  important  work  to  the  in- 
dustrial interests  of  this  State  received  for  carrying  2,009,947  pas- 
sengers to  the  end  of  their  fiscal  year — 30th  September,  1857 — $3,147,038. 

The  recei[)ts  for  carrying  545,914  tons  way,  and  292,877  tons  through, 
of  freight,  with  mails  and  express,  was  $4,879,014  ; total  receipts  for  1857, 
$8,027,252. 

I have  not  before  me  the  report  of  the  New  York  and  Erie  Railroad  for 
1857.  In  1855,  this  company  transported  842,054  tons  of  freight,  and 
about  1,500,000  passengers.  The  gross  receipts  between  $0  and  $7,000,000. 
This  year,  the  receipts,  I learn,  are  near  seven  millions.  This  sum,  in 
round  numbers,  added  to  eight  millions  received  by  the  Central  Railroad 
Conijiany,  as  the  industrial  product  of  these  two  roads,  is  as  15  to  4,  as 
compared  with  the  receipts  by  the  State  and  forwarders  on  all  our  canals, 
and  of  course  we  may  say,  that  these  two  roads  are  nearly  four  times  as 
important  to  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  city  of  New  York  as  all 
our  canals.  There  should  be  taken  into  the  calculation,  the  Oswego  and 
Syracuse,  the  Cape  Vincent  and  Rome,  and  Ogdensburg  and  Boston  Rail- 
roa.is,  leading  from  Lake  Ontario,  that  transported  on  these  valuable 
improvements  to  develop  the  industry  and  resources  of  secluded  districts, 
400,000  tons  of  produce  and  merchandise,  and  half  a million  of  passengers, 
that  it  is  now  proposed  to  tax  with  canal  tolls. 

The  following  table  from  the  Central  Railroad  Company’s  Report,  for 
1857,  (page  13,)  shows  the  rapid  increase  since  this  road  began  to  equip 
herself,  (1853,)  to  transact  a general  freighting  business.  It  is  at  the 
rate  of  $800,000  per  annum. 

This  company  now  own  218  locomotive  engines,  196  eight-wheel  pas- 
senger cars,  2,845  freight  cars,  and  285  gravel  cars,  that  have  cost,  by 
the  rejiort,  $5,1 72,077.  If  coiqded  together  they  would  extend  in  line 
20  miles.  'I'hree-fourths  of  this  expenditure,  with  warehouses,  etc,,  has 
been  imnirred  on  the  faith  of  the  State  rejiealing  tolls.  The  enabling  act 
to  consolidate  the  several  railroad  incorporations,  and  to  get  rid  of  those 


The  Railroads  and  Canals  of  New  York. 


191 


who  had  commenced  the  Mohawk  Valley  Railroad,  cost  high  rates  of 
premium,  as  the  several  roads  were  dividing  8 to  10  percent  among  their 
stockholders,  in  carrying  passengers,  with  comparatively,  not  to  exceed 
one-hfth  the  present  rolling  stock  and  motive  power,  now  owned  by  the 
consolidated  company.  This  should  have  its  consideration,  as  no  doubt 
it  will,  to  prevent  any  re-imposition  of  canal  tolls,  as  I perceive  the 
canal  interest  at  Rochester  (certainly  not  the  mill  interest)  have  resolved^ 
that  they  will  petition  to  the  next  Legislature  to  place  on  railroads. 

Let  us  take  a view  of  the  equipment  of  the  canal  to  carry  freight. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  are  4,000  boats  and  scows,  that  are  worth 
on  an  average  $800  each,  or  $3,200,000.  Say  horses  to  a boat,  and 
give  10,000  horses,  that  have  cost  $80,  and  a like  sum  to  keep  them  a 
year  would  be  $1,600,000.  With  the  average  of  five  persons  to  each  boat, 
we  have  20,000  persons,  who  should  earn  $140  per  annum,  or  $2,800,000. 
It  will  require  three  acres  of  land  in  grain  and  grass,  for  hay,  to  support 
a canal  horse,  or  30,000  acres  of  land.  The  218  locomotives — the  iron 
horse — require  in  fuel,  prepared  for  use,  191,119  cords  of  wood,  that  cost 
$847,853,  for  the  year  ending  30th  September,  1857.  Estimating,  say 
60  cords  to  the  acre,  this  would  clear  up  3,200  acres  to  produce  food 
sufficient  for  all  the  operatives  on  this  road,  and  the  estimated  20,000  on 
our  canals. 

STATEMENT  OF  EARNINGS  FROM  PASSENGERS,  FREIGHT,  AND  OTHER  SOURCES,  FOR  THE 
YEARS  ENDING  SEPTEMBER  30tH,  1853-4-5-6-7. 


Tonnage, 

Years. 

Passengers. 

Freight. 

Other  sources. 

Total. 

•way  & throu’h. 

1853 

$2,826,668  74 

$1,836,572  26 

$122,279 

18 

$4,787,520 

17 

360,000 

1854 

3,151,618  89 

2,479,820  66 

286,999 

95 

5,918,334 

60 

549,805 

1855 

3,242,229  19 

3,189,602  90 

131,749 

05 

6,563,861 

14 

670,073 

1856 

3,207,378  32 
3,147,636  86 

4,328,041  36 

171,928 

50 

7,707,348 

18 

776,112 

1857 

4,559,275  88 

320,338 

67 

8,027,261 

41 

838,791 

It  will  be  perceived  the  increase  in  freight  receipts  in  four  years  is 
$3,239,731,  while  the  tonnage  has  more  than  doubled  since  1853,  and 
there  has  been  a decrease  in  the  receipts  for  passengers  of  $3,877  in  the 
last  four  years,  or  nearly  stationary  during  the  last  four  years.  During 
this  period  the  Central  Railroad  Company  have  regularly  paid  8 per  cent 
per  annum  to  its  stockholders,  the  interest  to  its  bondholders,  $970,871  12, 
Desides  having  a “ debt  certificate  fund  of  $632,000,  and  a balance  of 
income  account,  30th  September,  1857,  of  $1,826,572  39,”  and  “without 
one  dollar  of  floating  debt.”  It  is  calculated  the  sinking  fund  will  pay  the 
debts  of  the  company. 

How  does  this  picture  compare  with  the  receipts  on  the  State  works  ? 
It  appears  that  our  canals  are  running  us  in  debt  for  their  attendance 
and  repairs,  while  we  are  obliged  to  resort  to  direct  taxation  to  meet  our 
indebtedness  for  the  enlargement,  and  with  no  certainty  of  being  remu- 
nerated for  further  expenditures  for  the  enlargement,  if  we  are  to  judge 
from  our  experience,  and  that  of  Ohio  and  Indiana,  of  the  result  of  compe- 
tition between  these  two  classes  of  internal  improvement.  The  following 
is  taken  from  the  New  York  Tribune^  of  the  l7th  December,  under  the 
head  of  money  article  : — 

“ The  tolls  collected  on  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  Indiana,  for  the  year  end- 
ing the  1st  inst.  amount  to  over  $60,457  14.  The  tolls  last  3^ear  were  $113,643  14. 
They  fall  short  largely  of  the  expense  of  the  ordinary  repairs  of  the  canal.  The 
tolls  for  the  year  1852  were  $187,392  15.  The  diminution  from  year  to  year  since 


192 


Tlic  Rmlroitds  arid  Canoh  of  Nev)  York. 


is  to  be  referred  to  the  eonipctition  of  llie  rnilroads.  Similar  rosidts  an*  ex- 
perienced in  Ohio,  wliere  their  canal  lolls  have  fallen  oil’ in  th(;  same  ratio,  owini^ 
to  the  same  causes.” 


Mr.  Henton,  the  Canal  Auditor,  in  Ills  rejiort  totlie  Senate,  nth  of.Inne, 
1857,  (h)oe.  No.  10,)  after  showiiijn:  that  out  of  l,.hl8,000  barrels  of  flour, 
sliipjied  in  185G  from  Jbitlalo  and  lllaek  Rock,  only  70,4 70,  or  one  barrel 
in  twenty,  went  by  the  canal.  Mr.  Henry  Kitzhugli,  (Janal  Ominiissioner, 
in  his  report  to  the  Senate  (Doc.  127,  page  09,)  corroborates  Mr.  Henbrn, 
by  tables,  facts,  and  figures,  lie  says,  “thus  it  ajipear.s  that  of  the  lead- 
ing articles  of  flour,  ])ork,  beef,  bacon,  lard,  tallow,  and  oil,  arriving  at 
Buffalo,  but  a small  })ortion  is  shijiped  by  canal. 

AVe  must  not  suppose  that  the  above  articles  are  the  only  ])ortion  of 
tills  trade  that  will  be  taken  by  railroads  from  Buffalo  ami  elsewhere. 
Tliere  is  no  article  of  transportation  better  suited  to  movement  by  rail- 
road than^ram;  none  that,  with  proper  arrangements,  requires  less  manual 
labor,  or  can  be  more  easily  transferred  by  machinery  from  boats  and 
vessels  to  cars,  and  from,  cars  to  vessels  or  storehouses,  and  that  it  will  soon 
become  as  common  an  article  of  tians])ortation  on  our  railways  as  any 
other,  admits  not  of  a doubt.”  * % -h  % ^ 


“ l>ut  we  have  other  comj)etitors  for  this  trade  north  and  south,  beyond 
the  limits  of  control  of  State  legislation,  which  are  yearly  acquiring  in- 
creasing facilities  for  sharing  in  this  trade.”  % % % * 

Mr.  Fitzhugh,  a canal  forwarder  of  more  than  twenty-five  years,  re- 
marks, (page  49,)  “as  to  what  wouid  be  the  etiect  of  re-imposing  tolls  on 
the  railroads,  as  well  as  by  subjecting  to  toll  all  roads  competing  with 
the  canals,  I have  no  doubt  that  ample  revenue  may  be  derived  from 
them,  if  it  were  deemed  just  and  expedient  to  tax  them  with  canal  tolls.” 

^ lie  then  shows  that  it  would  drive  trade  through 

Pennsylvania  and  the  Canadas,  and  remarks,  “ It  would  be  a tax  local 
and  invidious  in  its  character,  and  would  damage  the  commerce  of  the 
State  in  which  we  are  all  interested.”  % ^ 

“ The  great  object  sought  by  our  system  of  canals  and  railroads  lias 
been  commerce,  and  the  result  has  justified  our  anticipations  and  rewarded 
our  efforts.  Under  this  system  our  State  has  greatly  prospered,  and  it  is 
not  deemed  wise  to  hazard  this  prosperity  by  new  and  doubtful  experi- 
ments, particularly  now  when  neighboring  States  and  provinces  are  pre- 
paring to  wrest  this  travel  and  trade  from  our  State.” 

Should  not  this  viev/  of  the  relative  importance  of  these  two  classes  of 
internal  improvements — as  industrial  machines — with  the  fact  that  Great 
Britain  during  the  last  quarter  of  a century  has  invested  nearly  two 
thousand  millions  of  dollars  (half  her  national  debt)  in  railways,  while  her 
capitalists  have  not  invested  one  dollar  in  any  new  canals,  v/ith  the  like 
course  for  the  last  ten  years  of  all  the  States  of  this  Union,  (with  the  exception 
of  New  York,)  admonish  the  incoming  Legislature  to  examine  and  inquire 
into  the  relative  merits  of  raihvays  and  canals,  with  a view  to  a new  dis- 
position in  our  State  policy? 

In  fine,  it  would  ap])ear  by  all  late  experience  in  this  State,  as  w’ell  as 
in  Pennsylvania,  our  State  officers,  elected  by  the  popular  vote,  are  not 
competent  to  manage  our  public  wmrks,  without  c rrupting  all  those  who 
have  anything  to  do  with  the  immense  sums  that  are  squandered,  and 
will  (u)ntinue  to  be  S(piandered,  on  our  public  works,  and  then,  cui  bono, 
except  to  make  banking  ca])ital  the  true  secret,  if  we  could  arrive  at  the 


Journal  of  Mercantile  Law, 


193 


fact  why  the  people  have  been  called  to  issue  their  bonds  for  “the  more 
speedy  enlargement”  during  the  last  twenty  years,  to  issue  “ credit  money” 
on  the  twenty  and  odd  millions  lodged  with  the  bank  department  to  meet 
the  same,  which,  in  the  late  panic,  fell  about  30  per  cent^  in  throwing 
about  10  per  cent  of  our  State  promises  into  the  market  to  redeem  our 
“ credit  money,”  the  true  secret  of  the  enlagernent  as  now  progressing. 

In  conclusion,  has  not  the  time  arrived  to  use  the  earnings  of  our  canals, 
if  any,  and  the  canal  tax  now  collecting,  to  clear  out  our  canals  ior  the 
best  navigation  they  will  give  us  in  their  entire  length,  to  Lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario?  We  may  find  it  to  our  interest  to  follow  the  example  of  Penn- 
sylvania, to  sell  our  public  works  to  private  enterprise,  and  thus  get  rid 
of  their  political  and  corrupting  influence. 

Since  writing  the  foregoing  [ learn  that  eleven  freight  trains,  with  36 
cars  in  a train,  each  loaded  with  eight  tons,  or  3,168  tons  daily,  or  one 
million  of  tons  per  annum,  in  one  direction,  is  now  passing  Syracuse  with 
western  produce,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  etc.,  to  supj)ly  the  seaboard  markets. 
This  daily  tonnage  is  independent  of  trains  of  passenger  cars,  each  way, 
carrying  2,609,974  per  annum,  or  above  8,000  passengers  daily. 

Should  not  this  freight  and  passenger  travel  have  a railroad  bridge  at 
Albany,  so  as  to  form  a continuous,  unbroken  line  between  the  lakes  over 
our  Stale  and  the  seaboard  ? Which  is  the  major  interest — for  on  this 
the  question — that  of  two  or  three  steamboats  daily  from  Troy,  with  the 
sloop  trade  almost  reduced  to  the  carrying  of  lumber,  and  which  will  be 
taken  from  Troy  by  railway,  so  soon  as  the  Ilarlem  and  Hudson  compa- 
nies equip  themselves  to  carry  this  article  to  the  upper  wards  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  on  better  terms  and  where  it  is  required  for  building;  or 
the  lines  of  railroads  from  Lakes  Erie,  Ontario,  and  Champlain  ? 

J.  E.  B. 


JOURNAL  OF  MERCANTILE  LAW. 

* COLLISION  ON  THE  NORTH  RIVER, 

Discision  in  Admiralty — United  States  Circuit  Court.  Before  Judge  Nelson. 
The  following  decision  in  Admiralty  in  appeal  from  the  Court  below,  was  ren- 
dered in  September,  1857.  H.  Fitzhugh,  el  cd.,  vs.  the  steam  propeller  Com- 
merce : — 

Nelson,  C.  J. — The  libel  in  this  case  was  filed  by  the  owners  of  the  barge 
Isabella  against  the  Commerce  for  a collision  on  the  North  River,  near  Castleton, 
some  ten  miles  below  Albany.  The  steamboat  Indiana  was  ascending  the  river 
on  the  east  side  with  a tow  of  ten  boats.  The  Isabella,  the  one  in  question, 
with  barge  Cleveland,  were  the  last  tier,  and  were  connected  by  a hawser  to  the 
tug.  There  was  an  intermediate  tier  of  four  canal  boats,  also  connected  by  a 
hawser,  some  two  hundred  feet  in  advance  of  the  two  last.  The  Indiana  Lad 
passed  Mull  Island,  and  had  straightened  up  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  as  near 
as  it  was  safe  for  her  to  go,  and  had  advanced  so  far  that  the  last  tow  was  op- 
posite or  just  above  the  liend  of  the  island.  The  Commerce  had  left  Albany 
that  evening,  and  was  descending  the  river  on  the  west  side,  the  Oregon  follow- 
ing her  at  a distance  of  a few  hundred  yards.  The  night  was  not  very  dark. 
The  Commerce,  after  passing  the  Indiana  west  from  seventy  to  one  hundred 
feet,  when  about  opposite  the  second  tier  of  tows  took  a sheer  to  the  east,  and 
thus  changing  her  course,  struck  the  Isabella,  which  was  lashed  to  the  larboard 

VOL.  XXXVIII. NO.  II.  13 


194 


Journal  of  Mercantile  Law. 


eiflc  of  tlio  (’levelnnd,  nnd,  of  course,  renrest  the  Commerce,  vessel  and 

cargo.  'J'lxj  Court  hclow  was  of  opinion,  npon  tin-  proofs,  that  the  Cahelhi  was 
wholly  itj  fault,  being  ont  of  place  at  the  time,  and  far  in  towards  the  west  shore, 
and  in  the  track  of  the  (’ornmerce,  and  diMiiissed  the  libel,  'I'he  »-ontlict  and 
obscurity  of  the  j)roofs  on  this  j)oint  have  been  very  mnch  cleared  np  by  the  evi- 
dence of  the  |)ilot  of  th(‘  Oregon,  who  had  charge  of  that  vessel,  which  has  bec-n 
taken  in  this  Court  since  the  appeal.  'I’he  evidence  of  the  master  of  the  Imliar)a, 
and  of  six  of  the  tows,  is  V(-ry  tnll  and  explic-it,  that,  at  tin-,  time  of  the  sheer  of 
the  (’ornmerce,  the  two  last  tows,  the  Isabella  and  Cleveland,  were  on  a line,  or 
nearly  in  a line,  v\ith  the  tng,  which  confessedly  was  as  far  to  the  east  s.lioie  as 
was  safe  ; and  the  master  of  the  Cleveland,  to  which  vessel  tin;  Isabella  was 
lashed,  states  that  his  vessel  was  about  as  ne.ar  the  shore  ;is  was  prudent  for  him 
to  go.  Ami  further,  they  all  agree  that  there  was  r(»()m  enough  for  the  Com- 
merce to  have  passed  west  of  the  tow,  and  that  the  sheer  was  unnecessary,  and 
the  direct  cause  of  the  collision.  'I'hesc;  witnesses  all  saw-  tlie  sheer,  which,  in- 
deed, is  admitt(‘d  by  tlie  witnessj^s  for  the  ('omniercc  : ;iml.  ajtprehending  ;i  (od- 
lision  in  consecjuemu*,  watched  the  course  of  the  vessel  until  it  happened.  'I'hey 
speak,  therefore,  with  confidence  as  to  the  transaction  ; and,  indeed,  cannot  well 
be  mistaken;  and  they  are  fully  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  tjte  pilot  of  the 
Oregon,  who  also  apprehended  the  collision  when  he  saw  the  sheer,  and  kept 
his  eye  on  the  (.’ornmerce.  'J’he  evidence  of  this  pilot,  who  was  first  pilot  of  tho 
Oregon,  very  much  sfiakes  the  testimony  of  Wilson,  the  second  pilot,  who  was 
examined  on  behalf  of  the  respondents  in  the  (h)urt  below. 

'J'he  defense  set  up  tf)  Justify  the  sheer  is  jilaced  on  two  grounds  : — 1.  That 
there  was  a light  on  the  Isabella,  and  that  the  pilot  of  the  Comineice  sujiposed, 
and  had  a right  to  suppose,  she  was  a vessel  at  anchor;  and  that,  being  well  oi.t 
in  the  channel  of  the  river,  he  made  the  sheer  to  pass  her  on  the  east  side;  and 
2.  'riiat  she  was  so  far  out  in  the  channel  there  was  not  room  to  pass  her  on  the 
west  side.  As  we  have  already  said,  the  testimony  of  the  captain  of  the  tug, 
and  of  six  of  tlie  tows,  is  very  strong  to  show  that  the  pilot  was  mistaken  as  to 
the  room  in  the  channel  west  of  the  Isabella.  But  in  addition  to  this,  is  the 
evidence  in  this  case  of  the  pilot  of  the  Oregon,  who  was  looking  on,  and  who 
passed  over  the  tract  just  at  or  near  the  moment  of  the  colli^ion.  And  as  it  re- 
spects the  light  on  the  Isabella,  it  was  in  the  hand  of  the  master,  who  was  mov- 
ing about  on  the  boat  at  the  time,  and,  under  the  circumstances,  we  cannot  but 
be  of  opinion  that  if  proper  attention  bad  been  given  to  the  navigaiion  of  the 
sCommerce,  it  would  have  aided  in  admonishing  the  pilot  of  her  position  as  one 
of  the  tows  of  the  Indiana  instead  of  confusing  or  embarrassing  liim.  The  pilot 
of  tlie  Oregon,  who  had  charge  of  that  vessel  and  who  was  sever.al  hundred  feet 
behind  the  Commerce,  had  no  difficulty  at  the  time  in  regarding  this  vessel  with 
the  light  as  the  tow  of  the  Indiana,  and  apprehended  a eoHi^i(>n  from  the  moment 
of  the  sheer  of  the  (’ornmerce.  The  channel  of  the  river  was  only  from  three  to 
four  or  live  or  six  hundred  leet  wide  at  the  place  of  the  collision  in  which  were 
the  Indiana  with  her  ten  tows  ascending  slowly  the  river — the  Commerce  and 
Oregon  descending,  and  in  respect  to  which  navigation  some  embarrassment  ex- 
isted ; and  yet,  the  weight  of  the  proof  is,  that  the  speed  of  the  Commerce  was 
not  cheeked  till  at  the  moment  of  the  collision,  nor  any  of  the  usual  precautions 
taken  under  such  cireumstanees.  The  Oregon  immediately  cheeked  her  speed, 
and  took  measures  to  prevent  any  accident. 

LIABILITY  OF  RAILROADS  AS  COMMON  CARRIERS. 

In  tlie  Morris  Courts,  on  the  21st  of  October,  1857,  the  case  of  John  C.  and 
Lewis  1).  Kay  rs.  the  Morris  and  Essex  Railroad,  was  tried.  The  plainliffis  al- 
leged that  lliey  had  bought  rags  to  the  value  of  over  ,^300  in  New  York,  which 
had  been  consigned  to  the  railroad  company  as  common  carriers,  to  be  delivered 
to  them  at  Morristown.  Since  the  consignment  the  goods  had  not  been  seen 
nor  beard  from,  allliongh  frequently  demanded  of  the  defendants. 

'riie  jilainliffs  claimed  damages  for  the  full  value  of  the  rags,  with  interest  on 
tho  same  since  the  date  of  the  demand.  It  was  admitted  tluit  the  goods  were 


1865.] 


Railway^  Canal^  and  Telegraph  Statistics. 


397 


RAILWAY,  CANAL,  AND  TELEGRAPH  STATpiICS. 

RAILROADS  IN  INDIA. 

Mr.  JuLAND  Danvers,  the  government  director  of  the  Indian  railway  compa- 
nies, states,  in  his  annual  report,  just  issued,  that  the  present  system  of  guaran- 
teed railways  comprises  a length  of  4,917  miles,  of  which  3,186  are  now  open 
for  traffic.  The  net  profits  in  the  year  ending  the  30th  of  June,  1863,  on  2,151 
miles  of  railway,  amounted  to  690.834Z,  and  to  975,07TZ  in  the  year  ending  30th 
June,  1864,  on  2,489  miles.  The  number  of  passengers  conveyed  in  the  latter 
year  was  11,781,683,  compared  with  9,242.540  in  the  former.  The  total  expen- 
ditures of  capital  on  the  lines  which  are  now  open,  or  in  course  of  construction, 
amounted,  on  the  1st  of  May,  1865,  to  54,942,029Z.  The  expenditure  this  year, 
it  is  estimated,  will  amount  to  rather  more  than  5,000,0C0Z — about  1 800,000Z  to 
be  expended  in  England,  and  3,350,000Z  in  India.  The  total  amount  estimated 
to  be  required  for  the  undertakings,  as  now  sanctioned,  will  reach  77,500,000Z. 
The  number  of  shareholders  at  the  end  of  the  year  1864  was  29,303  in  England, 
and  877  in  India— the  latter  number  consisting  of  384  Europeans  and  393  na- 
tives. There  were  also  6 453  debenture  holders.  Up  to  the  end  of  1864  the 
government  had  advanced  13,160,539Z  to  the  railway  companitsfor  guaranteed 
interest,  but  about  3,3OO,O0OZ  had  been  paid  back  out  of  the  earnings  of  the 
railways,  leaving  l0,000,000z  still  due  to  the  government.  The  charge  upon 
the  government  was  2,567, 743Z  in  the  past  year,  and  by  the  Ist  of  January  next 
it  will  probably  have  indreased  to  2,7OO,O0OZ;  but  the  receipts  from  traffic, 
which  go  in  diminution  of  this,  and  which  in  the  year  1863-64  amounted  to 
1,000, OOOZ,  will  in  1864-’65  probably  reach  l,300,0O0Z.  Year  by  year  the 
revenue  will  approach  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  amount  of  guaranteed  interest, 
and  at  last  the  government  will  not  only  be  relieved  of  the  annual  payment  al- 
together, but  the  railways  will  begin  to  earn  more  than  the  guaranteed  rate, 
and  to  discharge  their  debt  for  previous  advances  out  of  half  the  excess  profits 
above  five  per  cent.  Although  it  will  be  some  time  before  the  government  will 
receive  back  the  large  sum  due  to  them,  there  is  enough  in  the  present  condition 
of  the  lines  to  encourage  the  hope  that  ultimately  it  will  be  paid,  and  in  the 
mean  time  the  State  obtains  advantages  which  fully  compensate  for  the  liability 
it  has  incurred.  Mr.  Danvers  holds  that  no  country  in  the  world  will  derive 
greater  advantages  from  railways  than  India  ; that  the  traffic  on  the  main  line 
may  be  expected  to  be  enormous ; and  when  they  earn  six,  eight,  or  ten  per 
cent,  the  difficulty  which  now  exists  in  inducing  capitalists  to  promote  public 
works  in  India  will  be  removed. 


RAILROADS  IN  TEXAS. 

The  railroads  already  constructed  and  now  in  running  order  in  this  State  are 
the  Houston  and  Texas  Central  Railroad,  from  Houston  to  Millican,  distance 
80  miles.  Washington  County  Railroad,  from  Hempstead  to  Brenham,  distance 
30  miles.  Buffalo  Bayou,  Brazos  and  Colorado  Railroad  from  Harrisburg  to 
Alleyton,  distance  80  miles.  Houston  Tap  and  Brazoria  Railroad  fromilous- 


398 


Railway,  Canal,  and  Telcyraph  Statistics.  [November, 

ton  to  Columbia  distance  45  miles,  (ialvesfon,  Houston  and  Henderson  Rail- 
road. from  Calveston  to  Houston,  distance  50  miles.  'I’exas  and  New  Orleans 
Railroad,  from  Houston  to  Heaurnont,  distance  C5  miles.  Resides  these,  there 
is  a railroad  in  runniii'?  order  from  tShreveport,  La.,  to  Nfanshall,  d’exas,  distance 
40  miles.  A railro.ad  is  now  bein^  built  from  Rrazos  Santias^o  to  Hrownvllle, 
distance  about  .80  miles,  and  one  from  Tndianola  to  Victoria,  distance  40  miles. 

VIRGIIVIA  AIVD  TEMIV’CSSEE  RAILROAD. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Hoard  of  Directors  of  the  Virginia  and  I’enncssce 
Railroad,  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1865,  exhibits  the  following  facts  : 


The  gross  earnings  of  operating  were $3,291,907  37 

The  expenses  of  operating  were 2.990,.’)04  76 

Net  earnings  above  operating  expenses $301,402  61 


The  net  earnings  are  9.1G  per  cent,  and  the  expenses  of  operating  90.84  per 
cent  of  the  gross  earnings. 

There  have  been  six  different  raids  during  the  year  by  the  armies  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  the  road  destroyed  each  time  for  long  distances.  Much  property 
was  also  destroyed  by  the  soldiers  of  the  Confederate  States,  and  to  such  an  ex- 
tent were  these  injuries  com  nittel,  thvt  there  i^  now  upon  the  road  only  three 
bridges,  original  structures,  left  standing,  and  but  three  depots. 

The  road  was  open  for  its  entire  length  one  hundred  and  forty-three  days  dur- 
ing the  year;  for  ninety-one  days  was  closed  nearly  its  whole  length,  and  for 
one  hundred  and  thirty-one  days  closed  the  entire  distance.  The  depots  are  yet 
unbuilt,  but  the  bridges  were  repaired  as  speedily  as  possible,  and  the  entire 
amount,  7,729  feet,  replaced  with  new  structures  (trestle  work),  which  will,  in 
a majority  of  cases,  last  four  or  five  years.  One  or  two  are  in  da  ger  from  high 
water,  and  will  be  replaced  by  truss  bridges,  similar  to  the  original  structures, 
as  quickly  as  possible.  The  wood  sheds,  water  stations,  etc.,  were  destroyed 
the  same  time  with  the  depots,  but  are  now  repaired,  an  i freight  cars  are  now 
used  for  the  reception  and  distribution  of  freight  until  nevv  depots  can  be  built. 
There  were  destroyed  at  the  same  time  seventy-two  passenger  and  freight  cars 
and  three  locomotives. 

LYDIAN  RAILROAD^.  . ^ 

The  through  line  from  Lahore  to  Mooltan  on  the  Indus  is  now  in  operation. 
The  Branch  Line  of  the  Great  Bombay  and  Calcutta  which  pierces  the  cotton 
country  to  Nagpore  is  making  great  progress  ; and  the  contractors  who  have 
this  line  from  Lahore  or  Umritsir  to  Meerut  and  Delhi  in  hand,  are  hard  at  work. 
The  only  break  which  remains  to  be  considered  is  that  along  the  desert  side  of 
the  Indus  from  Mooltan  to  Kotree,  the  terminus  of  the  line  from  Kurrachee  ; 
and  this  will  soon  have  to  be  connected  by  iron  links.  Then  Calcutta  will  be 
in  direct  communication  by  rail  with  Kurrachee,  2,000  miles  off,  with  Bombay, 
1,600  miles  off,  and  with  Nagpore,  1,100  miles  off.  Whether  we  look  at  the 
magnittide  and  solidity  of  these  works,  or  at  the  distance  which  they  traverse, 
the  railroads  of  India  will  far  surpass  any  like  works  in  Europe,  and  closely 
compete  with  the  greatest  projected  works  in  America.  They  will  cover  5,000 
miles,  and  cost  £70,000,000  sterling  (350,000,000  dollars.) 


386 


Railroad,  Canal,  and  Steamboat  Statistics. 


been  wise  to  examine  that  part  of  the  neck  of  land  which  nature  points  to  as 
afifordino*  the  most  probable  solution  of  the  difficulty.  I heard,  at  Panama,  ac- 
counts Sf  a depression  in  the  Cordilleras  at  a point  where  the  two  seas  ap- 
proximate so  closely  to  one  another,  that  the  natives  are  m the  habit  of  making 
a portage  with  their  canoes,  from  the  waters  flowing  into  the  Gulf  ot  Mexico  into 
those  which  lose  themselves  in  the  Pacific  ; and  I was  not  sorry,  in  company  with 
a fellow-countryman,  to  join  a Frenchman,  a German,  and  a Spaniard,  who  were 
about  to  start  on  a visit  to  some  property  one  of  them  had  recently  purchased  in 
that  direction,  in  the  hope  that  I might  gain  some  information  relative  to  so  in- 
teresting a subject.  The  limited  time  at  my  disposal  unfortunately  precluded 
the  possibility  of  my  attempting  anything  in  the  shape  of  regular  exploration. 
About  thirty  miles  to  the  southeastward  of  Panama,  the  river  Bayanos  enters 
the  Pacific,  almost  dividing  the  Isthmus  at  a point  where  the  distance  from  sea 
to  sea  does  not  exceed  thirty  miles  in  a direct  line.^  This  was  the  river  we  pro- 
posed ascending,  in  the  hope,  at  all  events,  of  finding  out  something  from  the 
Darien  Indians  who  inhabit  this  narrow  strip  of  territory,  and  whose  inveterate 
hatred  to  Europeans  has  operated  hitherto  as  an  effectual  barrier  to  any  attempt 
at  penetration  into  their  country.  * * From  Chepo  a depression  of  the 

chain  was  perfectly  visible.  The  distance  from  lerabla  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
cannot  be  more  than  fifteen  miles  ; yet,  although  comparatively  so  near  Panama, 
no  one  has  attempted  to  traverse  the  country.  An  armed  party  would  be  indis- 
pensable for  the  purpose,  as  the  Darien  Indians  are  the  most  ferocious  tribe  m the 
country,  and  well  skilled  in  the  use  of  poisoned  arrows  and  the  blmypipe.  Ihe 
very  circumstance  of  their  so  jealously  resisting  the  entrance  of  a white  man  into 
their  district,  goes  far  to  show  that  they  are  conscious  of  its  holding  out  some 
unusual  inducement  to  his  stay  there.  It  is,  indeed,  confidently  asserted,  upon 
information  gained  from  them,  as  I have  before  said,  that  they  constantly  trans- 
port canoes  of  some  size  across  this  watershed. 


RAILROADS  IIV  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

We  derive  from  the  “ American  Kailroad  Annual,  compiled  from  official 
sources  by  R.  S.  Fisher,  Esq  ,”  and  published  by  Dinsmore  & Co.,  New  York, 
the  annexed  tabular  statements  of  the  railroads  in  the  United  States,  on  January 


1,  1858 

States. 

No.  of  r- 

companies. 

14 

— Length  of  lines. ^ 

Total.  Open. 

586f  54U 

Cost  of  con- 
struction and 
equipment. 
117,963,677 

15 

5941 

559^ 

17,597,703 

8 

585i 

521| 

20,523,998 

47 

1,413A 

l,283i 

63,384,310 

2 

63^ 

m 

2,586,512 

11 

659 

647f 

24,348,963 

Total  six  New  England  States. 

97 

3,884i: 

3,617 

$146,805,163 

42 

2,893i 

2,700f 

103,407,268 

16 

621J 

529f 

24,825,970 

68 

3 

3,453i 

91f 

2,773i 

91f 

135,166,609 

1,619,310 

10 

844i 

798i 

44,357,831 

Total  five  Middle  States 

13d 

7,904i 

6,893f 

$309,376,488 

19 

l,465f 

1,32U 

37,705,049 

5 

706 

675 

11,126,486 

9 

^74^ 

748J 

17,601,944 

14 

1,361 

l,185i 

24,952,163 

4 

521 

128 

3,500,000 

Total  five  Southern  States.... 

51 

5,028 

4,058i 

$94,886,682 

VOL.  XXXVIII. NO.  III. 

25 

386  Statistics  of  Population^  etc. 


Slates. 

No.  of 

/— Lcnelh  of  lincs.^ 

Cost  of  con- 
stnicllon  and 

companies. 

Total. 

Open. 

oqiilpiiiciit. 

Alabama 

7 

1,16011 

668i 

16.268,771 

Mississippi 

6 

404 

177 

6,616,009 

Louisiana 

8 

996 

836 

11,082,862 

Texas 

6 

1,666 

147 

6,00O,000 

Arkansas 

1 

146 

881 

776.000 

Tennessee 

9 

1,116 

8871 

19,360,890 

Kentucky  

9 

6661 

304^ 

10,197,414 

Total  seven  Southwestern  States. 

44 

6,068 

1,4881 

f67,128,946 

Ohio 

29 

3,298A 

2,7981 

106,048,828 

Indiana 

16 

1,461 

1,281 

28,801,276 

Michigan 

6 

1,026 

999 

80,390,868 

Illinois 

18 

2,616 

2,616 

86,44^,291 

"Wisconsin 

10 

1,962 

718 

19,296,842 

Iowa 

7 

1,076 

266 

9,087,629 

Missouri 

4 

798 

817 

19,140,247 

Total  seven  Northwestern  States . 

89 

12,226i 

8,9361 

$299,206,371 

California 

1 

221 

221 

760,000 

Grand  total 

421 

86,1871 

26,966J 

$918,146,600 

STATISTICS  OF  POPULATION,  &;c., 

ILLEGITIMATE  POPULATION,  INFANTICIDE,  ETC. 

The  special  committee  of  the  Board  of  Councilmen  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
which  had  been  appointed  to  consider  the  propriety  of  establishing  a Hospital 
for  Foundlings,  held  a meeting  on  the  11th  of  December,  1857,  at  which  Dr. 
James  Wynne  submitted  an  interesting  statement  of  facts  concerning  Foundling 
Hospitals,  etc.  We  now  publish  an  outline  of  his  statement,  using,  substantially, 
the  report  given  of  it  by  the  Courier  and  Enquirer : — 

“ The  establishment  of  such  institutions  occupied  a prominent  position  among 
the  public  charities  of  European  countries.  Nations  of  Latin  origin  opened  these 
hospitals  for  the  reception  of  foundlings  of  every  class  and  description,  while 
those  of  German  origin  confined  their  use  to  infants  who  had  lost  one  or  both 
parents.  St.  Vincent  do  Paul  was  the  champion  of  the  former  system,  and 
Herman  Franke  of  the  latter.  France,  Belgium,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Austria, 
and  Russia  have  adopted  the  former  system,  and  England,  Holland,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  Prussia,  Switzerland,  a considerable  part  of  Germany,  and  of  the  United 
States,  the  latter.  The  legislator  should  look  upon  these  institutions  as  of  abso- 
lute necessity,  arising  as  they  do  from  the  vices  or  infirmities  of  human  nature. 
I’he  first  Foundling  Hospital  known  in  history  was  that  of  Milan,  founded  in 
1787.  That  founded  at  Paris  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in  1G40,  is  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  useful  establishment  of  the  kind  now  in  existence.  Prior  to  1835,  a 
turning-box  was  used,  in  which  the  children  were  secretly  deposited  by  their 
mothers ; but  since  that  time  a certificate  from  a Commission  of  Police  is  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  admission  of  an  infant  into  the  Hospital.  Statistics  of  places 
where  these  hospitals  are  established  show  a slight  decrease  in  the  number  of 
illegitimate  births.” 

On  the  subject  of  infanticide.  Dr.  W.  said  : — 

“ In  the  city  of  New  York,  according  to  the  reports  of  the  City  Inspector’s 


Commercial  Statistics, 


567 


Vessels  employed  in  the  Coasting  Trade  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

An  Account  of  the  Number  and  Tonnage  of  Vessels  which  entered  inwards  and  cleared 
outwards  with  cargoes,  at  the  several  ports  of  the  United  Kingdom,  during  the  year 
ended  5th  of  January,  1844,  compared  with  the  Entries  and  Clearances  of  the  prece- 
ding year;  distinguishing  the  Vessels  employed  in  the  intercourse  between  Great  Bri- 
tain and  Ireland  from  other  Coasters,  (year  ending  5th  January,  1843  and  1844.) 

Entered  Inwards. 

1843.  1844. 


Employed  in  the  intercourse  between 

Ships. 

Tonnage. 

Ships. 

Tonnage. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 

9,060 

1,148,907 

10,104 

- 1,255,901 

Other  coasting  vessels, 

118,780 

9,636,543 

121,357 

9,566,27.5 

Total, 

127,840 

10,785,450 

131,461 

10,822,176 

Cleared  Outwards. 

, 

1843. 

1844. 

Employed  in  the  intercourse  between 

Ships. 

Tonnage. 

Ships. 

Tonnage. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 

17,453 

1,682,828 

16,760 

1,670,574 

Other  coasting  vessels, 

123,557 

’ 9,619,829 

124,937 

9,650,564 

Total, 

141,010 

11,302,657 

141,697 

11,321,138 

Produce  of  Customs  Duties  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

An  Account  of  the  Gross  and  Nett  Produce  of  'the  Duties  of  Customs,  in  the  year  ended 
5th  January,  1844,  compared  with  the  Produce  of  the  preceding  year,  (year  ending 
5th  January,  1843  and  1844.) 

1843.  1844. 


Gross  receipts  of  duties  inwards, 

“ duties  outwards, • 

JE22,596,263 

114,424 

‘ £22,636,659 
137,081 

Total  gross  receipts  of  customs  duties, 

i:22,710,687 

£22,773,740 

Payments  out  of  gross  receipts : — 

For  bounties, 

“ drawbacks, 

“ all’nces  on  q’ntities  over-ent’d,  damages,  &c.. 

£480 

176,366 

68,002 

£208 

134,138 

65,291 

Total  paynients  out  of  gross  receipt, \ 

£244,848 

£199,637 

Nett  receipt  of  customs  duties, .- 

£22,465,839 

£22,574,103 

IMPORTATION  OF  FLOUR  AND  GRAIN  INTO  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

The  Brighton  (Eng.)  Gazette  gives  the  following  statement  of  the  amount  of  wheat 
and  other  grain  exported  into  Great  Britain  in  the  last  twelve  years,  and  entered  for  home 
consumption,  with  the  average  price  and  amount  of  value,  compiled  from  the  annual  ac- 
counts laid  before  Parliament  by  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Navigation;  the  estimate  of 
price  being  averaged  from  parliamentary  documents  or  from  the  London  Gazette,  with  the 
exception  of  some  which  are  taken  from  the  London  Price  Current : — 


Quantity.  Average  Prigs.  Value. 

Quarters.  s.  d. 

Wheat, 14,739,503  57  1 ' , je42,431,115 

Barley, 2,097,925  33  1 3,260,523 

Oats, 2,422,845  21  1 2,587,088 

Rye, 237,482  33  9 400,666 

Peas, •.  935,268  35  8 1,667,894 

Beans, 988,234  35  3 1,741,762 

Buckwheat,  &c., 82,500  33  1 136,146 

Flour,  charge  for  grinding,  estimated 382,618 

Oatmeal,. 2,721 


Total  grain, je52,610,535 


568 


Railroad  Statistics, 


RAILROAD  STATISTICS. 

RAILWAYS  IN  FRANC L. 

Until  the  commencement  of  the  present  session,  France  had  only  a few  completed  rail- 
ways. These  were  the  Rouen,  the  Orleans,  and  the  Alsace  lines;  the  lines  from  l.yons 
to  St.  Etienne,  from  Alais  to  Reaucaire,  and  from  Andrezieux  to  Roanne,  and  some  small 
lines,  such  as  those  from  Montpelier  to  Cette,  from  St.  Etienne  to  the  Loire,  from  Paris 
to  Versailles  and  to  St.  Germains,  from  Mnlhouse  to  'riiann,  &i-c.  Resides  tlu^se,  the  fol- 
lowing lines  wore  in  course  of  construction: — From  Rouen  to  Havre,  from  Orleans  to 
Tours,  from  Avignon  to  Marseilles,  from  Paris  to  Lille  and  Valenciennes,  Irom  Dijon  to 
Chalons,  from  Stra.sburg  to  Ilommarting,  from  Orleans  to  Vierzon,  and  from  Mont,*.  !ier 
to  Nismes,  being  in  all  900  kilometres.*  The  total  extent  of  railways  terminated,  and  in 
course  of  construction  at  that  time,  was  about  2,000  kilometres:  To  t’lis  number,  the  acts 
pas.^ed  during  the  present  session  add  147  kilometres  from  Lille  to  Calais  and  Dunkirk, 
121  from  Amiens  to  Roulogne,  (for  which,  without  doubt,  a company  will  offer  on  the 
terms  proposed  by  the  Chamber,)  437  from  Paris  to  Ilommarting,  besides  87  for  the  branch- 
es to  Metz  and  Rheims ; 450  kilometres  from  Paris  to  Dijon,  and  from  Chalons  to  Lyons, 
with  102  kilometres  from  Montereau  to  Troyes  ; .353  kilometres  from  I ours  to  Rordeaux; 
192  from  Tours  to  Nantes ; GO  from  Vierzon  to  Chatcauroux ; 87  from  Vierzen  to  the 
Allier;  and  74  from  Versailles  to  Chartres.  This  makes  a total  of  2,118  kilometres,  to 
which  is  to  be  added  the  trunk  railways  upon  which  the  wmrks  have  been  going  on  since 
the  beginning  of  last  January,  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  or  with  its  concurrence,  in  con- 
formity with  the  law  of  1842,  which  raises  the  whole  extent  to  2,828  kilometres ; and, 
with  the  Rouen  and  Havre  line,  to  2,918  kilometres.  Next  year,  it  is  certain  that  to  this 
extent  will  be  added  the  line  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Rhine,  (205  kilometres,)  and 
that  from  Lyons  to  Avignon,  (249  kilometres,)  being  together  454  kilometres.  The  rest 
of  the  lines  comprised  in  the  act  of  1842  will  be  afterw'ards  proceeded  with  ; namely,  from 
Nevers  to  Clermont,  from  Chateauroux  to  Limoges,  from  Chartres  to  Renucs,  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  Bordeaux  to  Bayonne ; being,  in  all,  1,320  kilo- 
metre.s.  The  works  are  either  about  to  commence,  or  have  already  commenced,  on  2,821 
kilometres ; which,  at  an  average  expense  of  300,000  francs  per  kilometre,  will  amount 
to  ati  outlay  of  850,000,000  francs,  of  which  about  500,000,000  are  at  the  expense  of  the 
state.  With  the  probable  votes  of  next  year,  the  general  expense  of  the  railroads  will  be 
1,540,000,000  francs,  (61,600,000/.  sterling;  and  in  seven  years  the  whole  system  will 

be  completed.  ' • 

The  Courrier  Francais,  of  a late  date,  publishes  the  following  return  of  the  amount  of 
capital,  in  railroad  shares,  to  be  issued  by  the  companies  of  the  different  lines,  of  which 
the  construction  will  be  authorized  by  the  French  Chambers,  during  the  present  session 

Dollars. 

14.062.500 

13.12.5.000 

18.750.000 

11.2.50.000 

7.500.000 

13.125.000 

5.625.000 

1.875.000 

85.312.500 


*A  kilometre  ia  about  1,094  yards — an  English  mile  is  1,760  yards. 


The  Paris  and  Belgian  Railroad,  not  including  the 

branch  road  between  Amiens  and  Boulogne, 

Paris  and  Strasburg, 

Paris  and  Lyons, 

Lyons  and  Avignon, 

Orleans  and  Vierzon, 

Orleans  and  Bordeaux,... — 

Tours  and  Nantes, 

Versailles  to  Chartres, 

Total, 


France. 

75,000,000 

70,000,000 

100,000,000 

60,000,000 

40.000. 000 

70.000. 000 

30.000. 000 

10.000. 000 

455,000,000 


91 


Railroad,  Canal,  and  Steamboat  Sialislics, 


SOUTH  CAROLINA  RAILROAD. 


The  following  statement,  originally  prepared  for  the  Charleston  Courier,  was  taken 
from  the  books  of  the  company.  The  prosperous  condition  of  this  great  and  important 
enterprise  must  be  gratifying,  indeed,  not  only  to  the  stockholders,  but  to  every  citizen 
interested  in  the  welfare  of  Charleston.  There  is  every  reasog  to  believe  that  its  income 
will  go  on  increasing  ; and,  from  the  fact  that  there  can  be  no  competition  with  them,  of 
such  a magnitude  as  to  affect  their  business,  and  the  disposition  shown  to  keep  the  charge 
for  freight  at  a reasonable  rate,  it  is  believed  that  the  stock  is  destined  to  become  as  pro- 
ductive as  any  in  the  country. 


1843. 

July, 

August,' 

September,. 

October,.... 

November,. 

December,. 


Receipts. 
^14,72(i  26 
13,585  02 
30,765  22  . 
55,390  54 
47,231  84 
42,349  32 


1844. 

July, 

August, 

September, 
October, 


Receipts. 
$19,088  80 
21,447  07 
41,103  13 
70,451  05 


1843 —  from  July  to  October,  inclusive, $114,467  04 

1844- -  “ “ “ 152.339  00 

114,467  04 


Gain  in  four  months,  on  road, $37,871  96 

Income  of  the  road,  from  July  to  October,  1844, 152,329  00 

Allow  that  November  and  December,  1844,  only  equal  the  same  months 
of  1843,  and  there  is  no  doubt  of  their  exceeding  that  amount  in  the 

same  ratio  as  the  four  preceding  months, 89,580  00 

Add,  for  the  bank  dividend, 17,500  00 

Contract  for  mail  and  other  sources,  $4,000  per  month, 24,000  00 


$283,409  00 

Six  months’  expenses,  at  $30,000  per  month, 180,000  00 

$103,409  00 

Thirty-four  thousand  shares,  six  montLs’  dividend,  at  three, 102,000  00 

Surplus, $1,409  00 


As  far  as  November  had  been  brought  up,  the  past  week,  this  year,  has  produced 
$14,157  39  ; the  week  corresponding,  last  year,  was  $11,353  12. 


WEST  INDIA  STEAMERS. 

The  financial  affairs  of  the  West  India  Steam  Company  appear  in  a prosperous  state. 
Agreeable  to  a recent  statement  of  the  directors,  exhibiting  the  receipts  and  disbursements 
for  the  half  year  ending  June  30,  the  receipts  exceed  those  of  a similar  period,  in  last 


year,  by  .£16,879  02. 

Receipts  from  January  1 to  June  30,  1844, £174,927  16  8 

“ “ “ “ 1843, 158,048  14  7 

. The  above  includes  the  government  contract  for  mail  service,  of  £120,000. 

The  disbursements,  during  the  same  period,  were,  in  1844, $108,770  111 

And  in  6 months  of  1843, 123,706  19  0 

E.xcess  of  receipts  over  disbursements,  1844, 66,157  14  9 

“ “ “ “ 1843, 34,341  15  7 


It  is  contemplated  to  build  another  steamer  for  the  conveyance  of  the  mail  between 
Jamaica,  Carthagena,  &.C.,  heretofore  carried  by  a sailing  vessel.  The  directors  announce 
tliat  they  have  paid,  since  their  last  meeting,  £20,000  of  their  debt,  and  intend  paying  off 
their  loan  of  .$50,000,  borrowed  in  1842. 


92 


Rdiltoady  Canal,  and  Slc.atnhoat  Slatistics, 


RAILWAYS  IN  ENGLAND,  ON  "I’lIE  (.'ONTINEIVT, 
la  Germany,  at  the  present  time.  (IS-M.)  there  are  1,339  miles  of  railroad  'eompletcd, 
589  m the  course  of  construction,  and  3,09(1  projected,  (lerniany  has  l.W  miles  of  rail- 
way  completed  for  every  million  of  inhabitants  ; France,  16;  Helgiu.n,  50  ; E.udand  8G- 

" con.plcted,  O.at  l.ave 

cost  $.300,000,000  ; the  United  States,  4,000  miles— $125,000,000.  France  has  only 
560  miles  completed.  Several  years  have  been  lost  to  devise  a iilan  for  the  government 
to  aOord  aid  to  private  corporations  to  construct  and  manage  railways,  they  giving  to  the 
government  (he  privilege  to  transport  the  mails,  troops,  and  munitions  of  war,  at  fixed 
rates.  On  this  plan,  France  will  soon  he  covered  with  railways. 

Russia,  after  her  first  success  in  a short  road  of  16  miles,  is  now  constructing  a road 
from  St.  Petersburg  to  Moscow,  400  miles  long,  superintended  by  American  engineers, 
with  Americans  m her  work-shops  to  learn  her  to  make  locomotives,  cars,  &c.  Russia 
has  also  a work  projected  of  1,000  miles  in  length,  to  connect  her  capital  with  the  Cas- 
pian and  Black  seas.  The  following  is  a view  of  the  railways  about  to  be  constructed 
in  the  several  states  of  Germany 


Austria, 

Bavaria, 

Wurtemburg,, 

Baden, 

Hanover, 


Miles. 

770 

228 

174 

217 

272 


To  cost 
X5, 4 40,000 
l,G5(i,000 

3.024.000 

2.016.000 
1,650,000 


Miles.  To  cost  ' 

Brunswick, 81  Jf475,000 

Darm.stadt 70  730,000 


Total, 1,872  X14, 995,000 


In  enumerating  these  extended  lines  of  railways  on  the  continent,  and  in  Great  Britain, 
wc  do  not  read  of  a single  new  canal  projected,  or  in  the  course  of  construction.  Rail- 
ways judiciously  located,  and  constructed  between  desirable  points,  are  sure  to  be  safe 
investments. 

In  England,  the  late  official  returns  show  a falling  off  in  the  receipts  of  canals,  side  by 
side  with  railways,  of  from  33  to  66  per  cent ; while  about  this  ratio  of  increase  in  freight 
as  been  added  to  railways.  The  canal  property  was  worth  X200,  X‘300,  and  even  as 
high,  in  one  instance,  as  Xl,200  per  every  XI 00  paid.  Since  the  complete  success  of 
railways,  to  carry  all  classes  of  freight,  this  class  of  stocks  have  fallen,  since  then,  50  per 
cent  on  their  former  value  ; while  the  railways  have  steadily  advanced  in  prices,  and 
^,000  miles  of  new  railways  are  projected,  at  an  estimated  cost  of  $70,000,000.  In 
England,  the  long  lines  pay  6 to  10  per  cent  dividends,  as  a whole— near  5 per  cent  per 
annum,  on  $300,000,000.  New  England  has  $26,000,000  invested  in  railways,  that 
now  netts  6 per  cent.  The  whole  line  to  Buffalo  from  Albany,  320  miles,  costing  about 
$7,000,000,  netts  7 per  cent.  Yet,  under  this  view,  we  have  individuals  in  this  state  who 
would  expend  $25,000,000  more  to  enlarge  the  Erie  canal,  while  less  than  half  this  sum 
would  give  us  a complete  double  track,  from  Buffalo  to  New  York,  open  all  the  year,  and 
at  rates  of  transportation  as  low  as  by  the  canal,  if  not  low^er.  J.  E.  B. 


PARIS  AND  LONDON  RAILWAYS. 

The  establishment  of  the  railroads  from  London  to  Portsmouth,  from  London  to  Do- 
ver,  and  from  Paris  to  Rouen,  have  facilitated  the  communication  between  the  two  great- 
est capitals  of  Europe.  But  the  journey  has  not  yet  been  rendered  so  short,  and  so  easy 
of  accomplishment,  as  might  have  been  anticipated.  At  length,  however,  a grant  has 
lioen  made  by  the  French  government,  to  a private  company,  of  the  privilege  of  esta-  • 
blishing  a railroad  from  Amicus  to  Boulogne,  which  will,  w hen  completed,  probably  con- 
stitute the  shortest  and  most  frequented  route  of  communication  between  these  two  capi- 
tals. On  the  IGth  of  October,  the  privilege  of  constructing  a railroad  on  this  route  was 
adjutlgcd  to  Mc.s8rs.  Charles  Lafitte,  Blount  &,  Co.,  for  a term  of  98  years  and  11  months. 


Railroad,  Canal,  and  Steamboat  Statistics, 


93 


This  company  is  not  to  enjoy  the  benefit  of  having  the  cost  of  grading,  and  of  the  works 
of  art,  defrayed  by  the  government.  The  whole  work  is  to  be  done  at  the  expense  of  the 
company.  It  is  thought,  nevertheless,  that  the  amount  of  travelling  between  these  two 
great  cities  will  be  such  as  to  insure  a liberal  profit  to  the  company.  The  Paris  Journal 
des  Debats,  in  speaking  of  this  enterprise,  remarks  that  “ it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that 
the  cause  of  civilization  in  general  will  derive  a great  benefit  from  it.  By  means  of  this 
railroad,  the  two  great  centres  of  knowledge,  of  the  arts,  and  of  liberty,  will  be  brought 
within  twelve  hours’  travel  of  one  another.  Within  the  space  of  three  years,  in  all  pro- 
bability, it  will  be  made  easy,  by  means  of  this  railroad,  to  make  the  journey  from  Paris 
to  London  between  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  during  a great  part  of  the  year.” 


RAILROAD  TAXATION  IN  ENGLAND. 

It  is  stated,  in  the  London  Railway  Times,  that  the  gross  receipts  on  2,000  miles  of 
English  railway,  for  1843,  were  ^£7,002, 004 ; the  working  expenses,  :e2,222,924  ; the 
government  duty  paid,  ^191,081  ; interest  on  loans,  &c.,  £1,070,000 ; local  rates  and 
taxes,  £156,000 ; forming  a total  expenditure  (estimated)  of  £3,023,824;  leaving  only 
£3,111,000,  (upon  an  invested  capital  of  80  to  100  millions,)  for  “ dividend,”  and  subject 
to  income-tax,  &c.  Taking  ten  acres  to  a mile  of  railway,  those  2,000  miles  would  give 
20,000  acres  of  land ; which,  as  land,  would  be  assessed  at  £14,000,  paying  a rate  of 
£4,000  ; but  which,  as  railway,  is  assessed  at  £780,000,  at  least,  paying  £156,000  a year 
rates  ; and  that  amount  is  fast  increasing.  Irish,  Scotch,  Welsh,  and  continental  rail- 
ways, and  English  canals,  &c.,  are  exempt  from  this  principle  and  burden  of  taxation. 
Besides  these  contributions,  those  2,000  miles  of  railway  pay  income-tax  £90,000,  be- 
sides land-tax,  tithe-assessed  taxes,  &c. ; and  their  property  is  assessed,  for  the  purposes 
of  taxation,  at  48  times  its  legitimate  amount,  which  is  gradually  increasing ; and  that 
assessment  forms  the  guide  for  railway  contribution  to  the  12  millions  of  yearly  local 
taxation,  the  5 millions  of  tithe,  the  1\  million  of  land-tax,  besides  the  assessed  taxes, 
sewers,  and  state  taxes. 


INCOME  OF  THE  MOHAWK  AND  HUDSON  RAILROAD. 

The  following  is  a comparative  table  of  the  earnings  of  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson  rail- 
road, for  the  years  ending  October  31,  1843  and  1844: — 


1842 — N ovember, . 

December, . 
1844 — January,.... 
February,.., 

March, 

April, 

May, 

June, 

July, 

August, 

September,. 

October,.... 

Total,, 


$5,039 

25 

1843 — November, 

$6,047 

42 

2,350 

74 

December, 

3,918 

02 

1,905 

51 

1844 — January, 

2,029 

80 

1,469 

49 

February, 

2,552 

31 

1,609 

62 

March, 

3,300 

92 

4,677 

43 

April, 

12 

6,447 

06 

May, 

6,583 

27 

5,050 

87 

June, 

6,432 

05 

6,568 

97 

July, 

7,915 

39 

7,565 

90 

August, 

9,609 

58 

5,233 

52 

September, 

8,888 

31 

6,791 

31 

October, 

9,075 

39 

$54,700 

67 

Total, 

....  $74,018 

08 

54,700 

67 

Excess  in  favor  of  1844,. 


$19,317  41 


The  receipts  for  the  two  weeks  ending  Nov.  14,  were $2,943  61 

Same  time  last  year, 2,802  00 

Excess  in  favor  of  1844, 141  61 


91 


Railroad.,  Canal,  ami  Steamhoal  Stnli.stics. 


OPENINCi  AND  CDOSFNd  OF  'I’FIF  NF\V  YOIFK  CANAI>S, 

IN  KACIl  YEAR,  FROM  18i2'l  TO  1814. 

'I’lic  Imsincsfl  of  the  rariiils  of  Now  York  dosed  about  the  28th  of  November.  Hy  the 
use  of  iec-breakers,  portions  of  the  canal  were  kept  open,  however,  a few  days  lon^o^r,  to 
enable  boats  in  the  vicinity  to  reach  their  winter-quarters.  'I’lie  followint'  taldo  will  show 
the  commencement  and  close  of  navigation  for  each  year,  since  1824  : — 


CoTiRinence- 

No.  of 

Commence- 

No. 

Year. 

ment. 

Close. 

days. 

Year. 

ment. 

Close. 

days. 

1824,... 

April  30 

Dec.  4 

219 

1835, 

April  17 

Nov.  .30 

230 

1825,... 

“ 12 

“ 5 

238 

1836, 

“ 25 

“ 26 

216 

1826,... 

“ 20 

“ 18 

213 

mi, 

“ 20 

Dec.  9 

234 

1827,... 

“ 22 

“ 18 

241 

1838, 

“ 1 2 

N ov.  25 

228 

1828,... 

Mar.  27 

“ 20 

260 

183.0, 

“ 20 

Dec.  16 

228 

1829,... 

“ 17 

230 

1810, 

“ 20 

“ .3 

215 

1830,... 

“ 17 

242 

1841, 

“ 26 

Nov.  21 

218 

1831,... 

“ 16 

“ 1 

230 

1812, 

“ 20 

“ 23 

215 

1832,... 

“ 25 

“ 21 

241 

1843, 

May  1 

Dec.  1 

214 

183.3,... 

“ 19 

“ 12 

2.38 

1841, 

April  18 

Nov.  28  pro.  224 

1834,... 

“ 17 

“ 12 

240 

INC.RE.A^.Oi:jL\lUiQAJU  JJiiVVEL. 


The  receipts  on  ten  of  the  following  works,  to  the  Ist  September,  shows  an  increase  of 
^800,357.  The  receipts  on  all  the  public  and  private  works — railways,  canals,  and  turn- 
pikes— in  the  difierent  states,  in  1844,  compared  with  1843,  will  present  an  increa.se  of 
four  millions  of  dollars,  or  an  enhanced  value  of  eighty  millions  of  dollars,  calculated  on 


an  interest  of  5 per  cent. 

Utica  and  Schenectady, 

Tonawanda,  to  August, 

Buffalo  and  Attica,  August, 

Norwich  and  Worcester, 

Western  Railroad, 

New  York  Canals, 

Pennsylvania, 

Reading  Railroad, 

Southern  Railroad, 

Hartford  and  New  Haven  Railroad,.. 


1843. 

1844. 

lncrca.sG. 

$155,044 

$179,078 

$21,0.34 

27,033 

52.022 

24,988 

20,929 

34,179 

1.3,2.50 

91,911 

140,060 

58,149 

316,556 

460,677 

114,121 

858,445 

1,137,717 

279,272 

578,879 

714,801 

140,922 

2.32,637 

365,004 

132,367 

1,452 

4,364 

2.911 

89,288 

99,632 

10,343 

These  various  lines  all  show  a very  favorable  state  of  things,  and  clearly  demonstrate 
that,  for  investment,  railroad  shares  are  as  profitable  as  bank  shares,  and  but  little  short  of 
manufacturing  stocks. 


INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS  OF  OHIO. 

Ohio  seems  to  be  participating  most  abundantly  in  the  prosperity  of  public  works.  The 
following  is  a statement  of  income  for  two  years,  ending  the  middle  of  May : — 


1842-43. 

Ohio  Canal, ^47,480  76 

Medina, 28,873  15 

Medina  Ex.,  (unfin.,  will  be  compl.  this  year,)  2,754  61 

Wabash  and  Erie, 948  39 

Hocking, fi6(l  16 

Walhondiiig, 16fi  63 

Muskingum  Improvement, 7,904  78 


^88,729  48 


1843-44. 
$94,530  04. 
43,446  82 
5,253  27 
12,812  23 
1,692  12 
584  23 
14,340  70 


$172,659  41 
88,729  48 


[ncrcase  in  1844,. 


$83,929  93 


Statistics  of  Trade  and  Commerce, 


143 


1865.] 


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144 


Railway  News. 


[February, 


RAILWAY  NEWS. 

RAILWAYS  IN  SPAIN— THE  PYRENEES  TO  RE  TUNNELLED. 

A FEW  years  ago  Spain  was  as  innocent  of  railroad  conveniences  as  she  was 
in  the  days  when  Don  (^uixotte  bestrode  liis  Rosinanto  and  set  forth  in  search  of 
adventures  for  the  honor  of  Dulcinea  del  Toboso.  'I’he  Dons  had  hoard  of  the 
the  modern  invention,  and  thought,  doubtless,  that  the  devil  had  much  to  do  with 
it ; but  the  muleteers,  as  they  toiled  over  the  sunny  vine-clad  hills,  whistled  in  stolid 
indifference,  and  with  full  conhdence  that  their  business  was  not  to  be  broken  in 
upon  by  the  tireless  industry  and  force  of  the  iron  horse.  The  dream,  however, 
has  passed  ; and  now  the  city  of  Madrid  is  connected  by  railroad  with  all  the 
frontiers  of  the  kingdom — with  the  Mediterranean  by  way  of  Alicante,  Valentia, 
and  Barcelona ; with  the  ocean  by  way  of  Cadiz  to  the  south  and  of  Santander 
to  the  north  ; with  Portugal  by  way  of  Estremadura  and  Badajoz,  famed  in  war- 
like story,  and  with  France  by  way  of  the  Basque  provinces  and  Irun. 

The  length  of  the  lines  conceded,  according  to  returns  published  in  1864,  was 
3,781  miles  ; that  worked,  2,230  miles.  The  concessions  were  made  to  as  many 
as  37  different  companies.  The  capital  raised  by  shares  was  about  £24,000,000 
sterling  ; and  by  the  issue  of  debentures,  rather  more  than  £25,000,000.  The 
subventions  which  the  government  undertood  to  allow  were  £12,600,000  ; but 
only  about  half  of  them  were  actually  paid.  The  average  receipts  per  mile  are 
not  clearly  stated,  but  they  were  slightly  less  than  in  1852.  In  the  first  six 
months  of  1864,  compared  with  the  corresponding  period  of  1863,  some  of  the 
principal  lines,  however,  showed  a marked  advance — in  the  north  of  Spain,  of  as 
much  as  23  per  cent ; Seville,  20  ; Pampeluna,  12  ; Barcelona,  4.  French 
capital,  as  is  known,  is  very  largely  invested  in  Spanish  lines  ; and  the  French 
DOW  see  that,  in  order  to  enable  them  to  prosper,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
a radical  reform  should  be  made  in  the  customs  system  of  Spain — a reform  which 
by  abolishing  many  of  the  import  duties  and  reducing  the  rest,  shall  permit  the 
introduction  of  foreign  merchandise  in  considerable  quantities.  Unfortunately, 
however,  Spanish  cabinets  show  no  disposition  to  reform  the  commercial  rcg'ime ; 
and  so  little  inclination  is  there  in  Spain  to  befriend  railways,  that  a tax  of  10 
per  cent  of  the  receipts  of  express  trains  has  just  been  imposed. 

The  companies  enjoy  the  privilege  of  importing  the  materials  for  the  work' 
free  of  duty.  The  construction  of  the  line  to  the  French  frontier  necessitates 
the  construction  of  a tunnel  through  the  Pyrenees — almost  as  great  a work  as 
that  of  tunnelling  the  Alps.  The  elevation  is  to  be  six  feet  in  one  hundred. 


PACIFIC  RAILROAD  TO  RE  COMPLETED-ISSUE  OF  RONDS  RY  ST.  LOUIS. 

The  County  Court  of  St.  Louis,  at  its  session  December  18th,  ordered  the 
issue  to  tlie  President  and  Directors  of  the  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  bonds  to 
llic  amount  of  .^700,000,  being  the  same  that  the  County  Court  was  authorized 
to  issue  by  the  recent  act  of  the  Legislature.  This  loan  of  the  county  credit  is 


Railroad^  Canal,  and  Steamboat  Statistics. 


755 


LEADING  BllITISH  RAILWAY  SHARES  IJV  1861-62. 

The  following  comparative  statement  of  the  closine-  nrirp.,  nf  ih.  i r 
ehares,  at  the  close  of  the  years  1S51  and  185.,  :nrhf  flTirLti 


A,  Paid. 

Aberdeen £gQ 

Hristol  and  Exeter  . , . ifin 

Caledonian 60 

Edinburg  and  Glasgow..* .'  *. ! so 

Great  Southern  and  Western* 
(irolcincl,  gQ 

Great  Western. !.*!.'!.*]  100 

Lancaster  and  Carlisle. 60 

Lancaster  and  Yorkshire 100 

London  and  Brighton ’ * ’ loo 

London  and  North-Western  .*  * ” lOO 
London  and  South-Western..  ” lOO 
Midland 

Norfolk !!!.’!!!.*] 

Oxford,  Worce’ste’ri’  Woiver‘to*n*. 

Scottish  Central 

York,  Newcastle,  andB’wick*  * .*  .* 

1 ork  and  North  Midland 60 


December  31,  1851. 
Closing 

Decen 

i"ai(l. 

£50 

Prices.  Paid. 

12  124  £100 

100 

81 

83 

100 

50 

16| 

16f 

100 

50 

27 

29 

ICO 

50 

36i 

35| 

100 

100 

87 

88 

100 

50 

78 

80 

50 

100 

60i 

61 

100 

100 

95i 

96i 

100 

100 

117i 

117f 

100 

100 

86 

87 

100 

108 

57f 

68^ 

100 

100 

22 

24 

100 

50 

15 

15} 

100 

25 

14f 

15} 

100 

25 

m 

19 

100 

50 

23 

23} 

100 

Closing 

Prices. 

3H 
106 
67 
78 


32 

108  25 
671  34 
80  24 


Difference  in 
1852. 
Per  share. 
£1  10  high. 
--  0 “ 

6 “ 

0 « 


105 

951 

88 

84f 

1071 

1251 

911 

80 

54 

51 

94 

721 

691 


107  34 
95f  8 
90  10 

851  24 
1081  12 
1261  8 
921  5 
801  22 
56  34 

63  21 

96  35 

781  1 


15 
5 
0 
5 
0 
10 
10 
5 
0 
0 
0 

10  lo’er. 


601  13  10  high. 


THE  RAILWAYS  OF  FRANCE, 

»Hes,  and  earn- 

pared  with  the  receipts  for  the  previous  year  “ “ ^ 

Names. 

North,  Paris  and  Bologne,  (fee.. . 

Auzon  and  Somain .*’  ] 

East,  Paris  and  Strasbourg, . . , 

Mulhouse  and  Thann 

Strasbourg  and  Basle  ....*.** 

Paris  and  Lyons 

Montereau  and  Troyes 

Saint  Etienne  and  Lyons 

Saint  Etienne  and  Andrezieux. 

Andrezieux  and  Roanne 

Avington  and  Marseilles 

Railways  of  Gard 

Montpelier  and  Nimes.  ] ! ! 

Montpelier  and  Cette  ...*.*,*.’.! 

Bordeaux  and  Teste * ’ 

West,  Paris  and  Chartres 

Paris  and  Versailles,  left  bank.*! 

Paris  and  Versailles,  right  bank. 

Paris  and  Rouen 

Rouen  and  Havre 

Dieppe  and  Fecamp  .*.'!!!.*.”* 

Paris  and  Orleans  and  Corbel!  .’* 

Centre  Railroad 

Orleans  and  Bordeaux. 

Tours  and  Nantes *.!!*.*.**' 

Paris  and  St.  Germain.* 

Paris  and  Sceen 

Total 


Receipts  for  1852. 
16,597,535 
36,245 
3,070,191 
34,486 
604,682 
3,353,663 
263,609 
947,458 
85,316 
184,864 
811,038 

729,248 

50,400 

638,451 

153,754 

320,803 

1,819,064 

730,793 

169,215 

6,007,067 


Total  receipts  for  1851  ..**.*.*.*.**.*.**.*.**’  ’ * * ’ 

Excess  in  favor  of  1852 


280,248 

63,025 

$24,735,938 

20,002,912 

$4,733,056 


756 


Railroad^  Canal^  and  Sleamhoal  Statiutkfi. 


This  excess  of  nearly  live  millions  of  dollars  in  the  roccipts  of  the  year  1852  over 
those  of  1851,  i-i  to  be  attributed  mostly  to  the  completion  or  extension,  dm intj  the 
year  that  has  just  closed,  of  several  of  the  most  important  lines  of  railways  radialin^f 
from  the.  capital  to  the  frontiers.  The  Eastern  llailway  from  I’aris  has  been  o|i<  iied 
to  Strasbourg,  on  the  Rhine,  and  several  sections  completed  on  tlie  Western  road,  and 
on  those  destined  to  connect  Rorileaux,  Marseilles,  aiul  Lyons  with  rari-<.  The  num- 
ber of  additional  miles  of  railway  openetl  to  travel  and  traffic  during  the  year  1852, 
throughout  the  whole  empire,  was  249  miles.  1’he  four  railways  of  which  the  r<  cei[»ts 
jicr  mile  were  largest,  during  the  year  1852,  were  those  connecting  St.  lOtienne  and 
Lyons,  Paris  and  Versailles,  (right  bat.k  of  tlie  Stine,)  Paris  and  Rtjiieti,  and  Pari.-  and 
St.  Germain.  The  same  order  was  observed  in  1851,  though  the  profits  of  all  the, 
railways  in  France  have  increased.  1'he  four  yielding  the  least  income  per  mile  arc 
the  Bordeaux  and  'I'este  Railt^ay,  Mulhouse  ami  d’hann,  Auzon  and  Sornain,  and  Mon- 
tereau  and  Troyes.  The  grand  average  receipts  per  mile  for  all  the  railways,  in  1851, 
was  $l(),7o7. 

A legal  deci.sion  of  some  importance  to  the  railway  managers  and  the  public,  has 
lately  been  given  in  Paris.  Tlie  jiassengers  ujiftn  the  Lyons  and  Mediterranean  Road 
arrived  one  day  last  September  too  late  to  connect  with  the  branch  to  Avignon.  'J'hey 
bad  to  spend  the  night  at  Tarascar,  and  a portion  of  them  sued  the  cornf)any  for  dam- 
ages. The  company  took  the  general  ground  that  it  could  not  in  any  case  be  resjion- 
sible  for  any  losses  resulting  from  the  non  arrival  of  trains  at  the  sjiecitied  hours.  But 
it  was  decided  that  when  the  non-arrival  is  due  to  the  negligence  (»f  the  emfiloyees,  the 
company  must  be  held  responsible,  and  that  it  should  jiay  to  the  sufferers  damages 
profiortionate  to  their  losses,  not  exceeding  forty  dollars,  nor  less  than  six  dollars 
a-piece.  If  this  kind  of  law  were  in  force  in  the  United  States,  the  owners  of  some  of 
the  railways,  steamer.^,  and  stage  coaches  would  suffer  annually  to  considerable  of  a 
figure.  The  pi  incipal  railways  of  France  seem  to  be  lughly  prosperous,  and  very  many 
of  them  are  bringing  a handsome  premium  over  the  cost. 


STEAMBOATS  BETWEEN-  NEW  YORK  AND  BOSTON. 

The  Steamers  which  ply  between  New  Y^ork  and  Boston,  via  Fall  River  and  Ston- 
ington,  are  unsurpassed  for  comfort,  safety,  and  speed,  on  any  similar  route  in  the 
world.  We  find  the  following  notice  of  these  boats  in  An  EnglishvwmoM's  Expe- 
rience in  America."  Marianne  Finch,  the  author  of  that  work,  took  passage,  as  we 
understand,  in  the  “Empire  State,”  of  the  Fall  River  Line. 

“Two  days  afterwards  we  landed  at  New  York,  after  a pas.sage  of  eleven  days 
and  a half.  We  dined  on  shore,  and  then  proceeded  to  Boston  by  boat.  I’he  word 
‘boat,’ gives  a very  imperfect  idea  of  this  floating  palace,  which  accommodates  at 
the  very  moderate  charge  of  four  dollars  each,  from  five  to  six  hundred  American 
citizens  and  others,  of  all  classes,  in  a style  of  splendor  that  Cleopatra  herself  might 
envy.  Her  barge  with  the  sails  of  purple  silk,  in  which  she  received  Marc  Antony, 
was  nothing  to  it.  There  is  little  to  remind  one  of  machinery  ; for  the  paddle-wheels 
are  covered,  and  the  engine  is  rendered  invisible  by  being  surrounded  with  gla^s  and 
drapery.  However,  one  thing  is  certain,  the  vessel  moves  smoothly  and  quickly  through 
the  water.  I followed  a crowd  of  five  hundred  up  a handsome  staircase,  through 
splendidly  furnished  saloons,  covered  with  carpets  of  velvet  pile,  to  the  upper  deck. 

* Tea  being  announced,  we  all  adjourned  to  the  gentlemen’s  cabin.  I'he  apart- 

ment was  very  large,  with  berths  three  deep  all  around  it;  the  curtains  of  these  being 
drawn,  covered  the  sides  with  drapery  of  different  colors  mixed  with  lace  shades.  At 
the  entrance  we  were  met  by  tall,  swarthy  figures,  clothed  in  white  linen  of  unspotted 
purity,  who  conducted  us  to  our  seats.  There  were  three  tables,  the  entire  length  of 
the  room,  covered  with  every  thing  that  was  beautiful ; but  nothing  that  seemed  eat- 
able, except  [liueafiples  and  some  small,  delicate,  delicious-looking  things  that,  for 
want  of  a better  word,  I shall  call  rolls,  though  it  vulgarizes  them  sadly.  Notwith- 
standing this  unreal  appearance,  you  no  sooner  wished  for  anything  than  a ministering 
8))irit  wlis  at  your  elbow  to  gratify  you.  At  his  touch  pineapples  became  butter,  pyra- 
mids tea-cakes,  and  magical  boxes  s.ivoury  pies ; tongue,  ham,  and  all  kinds  of  delica- 
cies i.ssued  from  their  flowery  retreats  at  Ids  bidding.  At  the  end  of  the  banquet  you 
heard  whis{)ored  in  your  ear,  ‘ Half  a-dollar.’  It  was  produced,  and  silently  disap- 
Iieured — not  a clink  was  heard.” 


Its  Injluence  on  the  Trade  of  Other  Nations ^ etc.  249 


OF  AND  FROM  BRITISH  POSSESSIONS. 


Rice cwt. 

£0 

0 

6 

Sugar,  white,  damaged 

£0 

16 

4 

Clove  rseed 

0 

5 

0 

Sugar,  brown 

Coffee per  pound 

0 

14 

0 

Spirits,  or  strong  waters gall. 

. 0 

8 

10 

0 

0 

4 

only  the  East  India  spirits 

Tallow 

0 

0 

1 

and  strong  waters  (except 

Timber ... 

0 

1 

0 

rum)  15s.  4d.,  and  sweetened 

Deals,  battens,  boards,  and  other 

strong  waters,  .£1  Os.  4d. 

timber,  sawed  or  split 

0 

o 

0 

Sugar,  double  refined cwt. 

1 

1 

0 

Staves 

0 

2 

0 

Sugar,  refined, 

0 

18 

0 

It  is  seen  that  the  very  recent  reduction  of  duty  on  timber  is  almost 
exclusively  for  the  benefit  of  the  British  colonies,  especially  the  Canadas. 
While  formerly  foreign  limber  paid  55  shillings,  and  that  from  the  colo- 
nies 10  shillings  a last,  now,  since  the  reductions  of  the  duty  on  the  for- 
mer to  25  shillings,  the  latter  is  admitted  at  a mere  nominal  rate  of 
duty.  This  is  done,  although  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Canadian  wood 
is  of  an  inferior  quality  to  that  imported  from  the  ports  on  the  Baltic. 
McCulloch  says 

“ It  was  proved  in  evidence  taken  before  a committee  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  that  timber  from  Canada  is  not  half  so  durable  as  that  from  the 
Baltic,  and  is,  besides,  particularly  liable  to  dry  rot.  It  is  not  allowed  to 
be  used  in  the  building  of  ships  for  the  navy,  and  is  rejected  by  all  more 
respectable  house-builders.” 

The  importance  of  the  advantages  given  to  the  colonies  by  this  dis- 
criminating duty  on  timber,  may  be  judged  by  the  fact — which  occurred 
at  least  under  the  former  tariff — that  timber  was  carried  from  the  Baltic 
in  British  vessels  to  Canada,  in  order  to  be  re-exported  thence,  as  colonial 
timber^  to  England, 

Similar  representations  of  this  nature  could  be  made  from  the  tariffs  of 
the  colonies.  Thus,  for  example,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  most  foreign 
goods  pay  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  12  per  cent,  and  British  goods  only  5. 
In  the  West  Indies  the  duties  on  indispensable  necessaries  of  life,  the  pro- 
duce of  the  United  States,  such  as  flour,  beef,  pork,  and  lumber,  deserve 
special  notice,  being  so  arranged  as  to  divert  the  shipments  of  these 
American  productions  from  their  own  vessels,  and  to  secure  the  carrying 
business  to  the  British  flag.  It  will  be  interesting  to  hear  what  the  official 
report,  which  appeared  in  the  year  1832,  on  the  commercial  relations  of 
the  United  States  with  foreign  nations,  says  on  the  subject  : — 

“ The  products  (flour,  beef,  pork,  and  lumber,)  are  admitted  from  this 
country  into  Canada  jfrce  ; but  are  liable  to  a duty  on  importation  into  the 
British  West  India  possessions  of  81  20  per  barrel  on  flour  ; pork,  82  88 
per  cwt.,  and  on  lumber  85  04  per  1,000  feet.  The  amount  of  these 
articles  imported  into  the  said  dependencies  of  Great  Britain  is  large,  but 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  that  carried  into  the  provinces  over  the 
Canadian  frontiers  by  land,  and  thus  distributed  through  her  North 
American  possessions  in  her  own  vessels,  &c. 

“ The  gradual  extinction  of  our  direct  trade  with  the  British  West  In- 
dies, at  least  in  our  own  vessels,  seems  an  inevitable  result  of  the  present 
arrangement ; the  discrimination  between  duties  on  articles  imported  into 
their  colonies  directly  from  the  United  States,  and  on  the  same  articles 
when  imported  circuitously  through  the  provinces,  will  eventually  turn  the 
whole  course  of  trade  in  that  direction.  The  duty  on  flour,  beef,  pork, 
lumber,  staves  and  shingles,  from  the  United  States,  must  of  course  take 


250 


The  Raihraijs  of  Italy. 

this  circuitous  mode  of  importation,  as  they  are  all  admitted  free  of  <lijty 
from  the  provinces;  and  whatever  of  direct  trade  hetween  the  United 
States  and  the  continental  provinces  does  (;xist,  must  he  enjoyed  hy  British 
vessels  in  a very  great  measure,  in  consccpience  of  their  superior  facilities 
as  the  ports  in  those  colonies  for  transj)ortation  to  the  West  Indies.” 


Art.  III.— THE  H.llLWAYS  OF  ITALY. 

During  the  sessions  of  the  eighth  Italian  Congress,  which  assernhied 
in  (xenoa  last  September,  the  subject  of  the  |)resent  article  underwent  a 
thorough  and  interesting  discussion.  (Committees  were  appointerl  to  in- 
vestigate the  matter,  and  a splendid  report  was  presentecl ; which,  like 
every  other  Italian  pn)duction,  abounded  in  everything  we  want  except, 

what  must  always  amount,  in  such  matters,  to  “the  one  thing  needful” 

facts.  From  this  report,  and  other  documents  which  I have  collected,  I 
will  draw  up  a brief  account  for  the  Magazine,  after  lirst  giving  its  readers 
an  idea  of  the  body  from  whom  the  report  issued. 

The  Italian  Congi'css  is  comj)osed  of  the  principal  learned  men  of  Italy, 
who,  eight  years  ago,  associated  together  for  the  promotion  of  the  general 
interests  of  science.  It  will  not  be  necessary  for  me  to  tell  the  readers  of 
your  Magazine,  that  although  this  Congress  was  a voluntary  association, 
whose  only  object  was  the  promotion  of  the  great  cause  of  science  and  of 
art,  in  their  application  to  the  economic  arrangements  of  life,  it  was  re- 
garded  with  suspicion  by  most  of  the  governments  of  Italy.  It  was  long 
before  the  originators  of  this  institution,  which  has  now  grown  into  so 
inuch  importance,  and  really  ejected  so  much  good  in  Italy,  were  allowed 
to  assemble.  The  governments  of  the  peninsula  have  been  rocked  by 
perpetual  disturbances  and  revolutions,  and  their  suspicions  were  well- 
founded  against  this  general  and  imposing  movement.  They  are  well 
aware  that  their  thrones  have  no  security  except  in  the  divisions  and  dis- 
sensions  of  Italy  and  her  people  ; for  it  is  quite  too  evident  to  need  argu- 
ment, that  24,000,000  of  people  are  too  strong  for  any  system  of  govern- 
ment ever  yet  established,  if  they  move  in  concert  to  its  overthrow. 

The  principal  cause,  therefore,  of  the  suspicions  with  which  this  associ- 
ation was  regarded,  was  its  natural  tendency  to  promote  Italian  union. 
Hut  the  desire,  at  last,  became  so  universal  to  consummate  this  Congress, 
that  it  was  no  longer  considered  prudent  to  resist  it.  The  sovereigns  of 
Italy  resolved  to  guide  the  movement,  which  they  did  not  care  to  attempt 
to  crush. 

This  Congress  is  composed  of  all  the  most  learned  professional  men  of 
Italy.  They  assemble  annually,  in  some  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the 
peninsula,  and  remain  together  for  about  three  weeks.  During  this  time, 
the  city  gives  itself  up  to  a continuous  and  universal  festival.  Every- 
thing  is  done  by  the  government  and  the  people,  to  increase  the  gaiety 
and  splendor  of  the  occasion.  The  theatres  are  open,  the  best  operas  arc 
executed  by  the  most  fiimous  singers,  and  the  linest  tragedies  and  comedies 
arc  recited  by  the  best  actors.  The  most  imposing  ceremonies  arc  cele- 
brated in  the  churches,  and  discourses  delivered  by  the  most  eloquent 
preachers.  Concerts,  soirees,  casinos,  and  public  entertainments,  are 
given.  Every  collection  and  gallery  is  thrown  open ; there  are  exhi- 


llie  Railways  of  Italy. 


251 


bitions  of  all  the  most  excellent  works  fine  and  mechanic  arts  produced 
during  the  year,  throughout  Italy,  by  the  artists  and  workmen  of  rival 
cities,  business  is  suspended,  and  amusement,  gaiety,  and  splendor,  be- 
come the  earnest  and  enthusiastic  business  of  the  people.  It  need  not  be 
added,  that  what  is  generally  understood  by  political  discussions,  are  never 
even  attempted  in  these  congresses.  Such  an  attempt  would  be  immedi- 
ately disencouraged  by  the  majority  of  the  members,  if  indeed,  it  were  not 
suppressed  by  the  government ; but  the  discussions  are,  in  other  respects, 
more  free  than  might  be  expected.  Every  subject  which  relates  to  the 
natural  sciences,  or  the  arts  of  taste  and  utility,  and  the  entire  physical 
economy  of  life,  are  considered  legitimate  themes  for  discussion.  Hence 
railways,  which,  at  the  present  time,  are  exciting  a deep  and  unusual  inte- 
rest in  Italy,  occupy  a large  space  in  the  congressional  proceedings.  This 
subject  was  very  thoroughly  examined  at  the  Congress  at  Genoa,  in  Sep- 
tember. Plans,  designs,  and  proposals,  were  made  for  numerous  lines  ; 
and  every  one  proposed,  found  numerous  and  eloquent  advocates.  The 
chief  questions  discussed  were  : — 

1.  What  shall  be  the  principal  seaport-depot  of  the  great  Italian  rail- 
way that  is  to  cross  the  Alps  ; Genoa,  Venice,  or  Trieste  ? For  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean  must  find  its  way  into 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  the  centre  of  Europe,  by  one  of  those  cities. 

2.  Where  shall  the  great  central  line  that  is  to  traverse  Italy  begin, 
and  what  course  shall  it  take  in  its  route  through  the  peninsula  ? 

3.  Where  shall  it  {)enetrate  the  Alps,  to  open  communication  with  the 
central  and  northern  countries  of  Europe  ? 

4.  Would  it  be  better  to  have  one.,  ov  two  lines,  traverse  Italy  ? In 
other  words,  a great  central  line  beginning  at  Naples,  and  passing  Rome 
and  Florence,  ending  at  Milan  or  Genoa,  with  collateral  lines  (as  they  are 
called)  communicating  with  the  seaports  on  the  eastern  and  western  shores 
of  the  peninsula — or  two  great  lines,  one  on  either  coast?  In  this  case,  a 
road  would  extend  from  Nice  to  Genoa,  (100  miles,)  from  Genoa  to  Leg- 
horn, (150  miles,)  from  Leghorn  to  Civita-Vecchia,  (150  miles,)  and  from 
thence  down  to  Naples,  about  the  same  distance  ; and  another  line,  be- 
ginning  at  Naples,  would  traverse  the  eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula  up 
to  Venice. 

The  relative  advantages  of  these  two  great  plans,  were  warmly  dis- 
cussed ; and  to  have  listened  to  the  speeches,  a foreigner,  unacquainted 
with  Italy,  would  have  supposed  that  in  twelve  months  the  shrill  neigh  of 
the  iron-horse  would  be  heard  throughout  all  the  valleys  of  Italy.  But 
the  Italians,  themselves,  were  still  more  deluded  by  their  own  hopes. 
There  is,  probably,  no  people  in  Europe  who  have  been  so  often  be- 
trayed, by  themselves  and  by  others  : there  is,  probably,  no  other  nation 
so  eager  to  listen  to  schemes  of  national  prosperity,  or  so  powerless  and 
inert  in  carrying  them  into  effect.  In  fact,  the  history  of  Italy,  since  the 
era  of  her  great  achievements  in  the  middle  ages,  has  been  little  less  than 
a feverish  dream  of  indolent  hope.  No  scheme  of  national  redemption 
ever  proposed,  has  been  too  utopian  to  be  embraced  by  the  Italian  people, 
or  practical  enough  to  do  them  any  good ; and  now,  when  it  has  been 
demonstrated  to  the  satisfaction  of  everybody,  that  an  Italian  union  is 
absurd  and  impossible  ; when  every  attempt  to  elevate  the  character  of  the 
people,  and  regenerate  the  governments,  has  only  involved  the  ruin  of  re- 
formers ; when  none  but  enthusiasts  ever  dream  of  Italian  emancipation. 


252 


Thn  Railways  of  Italy. 


the  public  hopes  scorn  to  have  centered  upon  railroads  as  the  jj^reat  secret 
of  modern  civili/alion  ; and  they  fancy  that  when  this  “ steam-coach’^ 
goes  thnndering  through  their  tired  valleys,  a panacea  will  have,  l)een  dis- 
covered for  all  the  [)olitical,  moral,  social,  and  physical  woes  of  Italy. 
Even  the  most  clear-sighted  and  t'lcnte  Italians  arc  pretty  ihorongidy 
tinctured  with  this  all-pervading  superstition — f()r  i can  call  it  by  no  other 
name. 

I will  first  speak  of  the  railways  that  are  already  in  operation  in  Italy. 
Second,  of  those  that  are  being  constructed.  'I'hird,  of  those  that  will 
probably  be  constructed  in  the  future.  And  the»),  if  I have  space  and 
time,  briefly  glance  at  the  resources  on  wdiich  the  success  of  these  roads 
must  depend. 

I.  The  Italian  railways  already  in  operation  : 

IN  THE  KINGDOM  OF  NAPLES. 


From  Naples  to  Portici 7,r)0()  chilometrcs. 

Portici  to  Castclhnara 18,8n't  “ 

'I’orre  della  Nunziata  to  Nocera I.'j,n87  “ 

Naples  to  Caserta 2^2,220  “ 

Caserta  to  Capria 15,. '>.'34  “ 


Total 80,124  chilometrcs. 

IN  THE  LOMBARDO-VENETO  KINGDOM. 

From  Milan  to  Monza 14,000  chilornetres. 

Padoa  to  Mestre 30,158  “ 

Mestre  to  Venice,  (length  of  the  bridge) 3,548  “ 

Milan  to  Padua 30,805  “ 

Padua  to  Vicenza 28,876  “ 


Total 107,383  chilornetres. 

GRAND  DUCHY  OF  TUSCANY. 

From  Leghorn  to  Pisa 20,000  chilornetres. 

Pisa  to  Ponte 21,000  “ 


Total 41,000  chilornetres. 


General  total 228,507  chilornetres. 


That  is  to  say,  in  all  Italy  the  railways  already  in  operation,  amount  to 
about  120  English  miles,  since  1,000  chilornetres  are  a little  less  than 
half  a mile.  Some  other  roads  are  now  being  opened,  and  in  less  than  a 
year,  double  the  present  amount  will  be  complete. 

11.  Railways  now  in  process  of  construction.  The  most  important, 
by  far,  is  the  line  from  Genoa  to  the  Alps.  This  road  has  long  been  in 
contemplation.  The  government  yielded  its  consent  with  considerable 
reluctance,  in  consequence  (it  was  said)  of  the  violent  opposition  of 
Austria.  'The  road  was  not  to  traverse  any  portion  of  the  Austrian  States  ; but 
Austria,  which  has,  since  the  downfall  of  the  empire  of  France,  held  her 
oppressive  foot  upon  the  necks  of  Italian  jirinces  and  people,  felt  serious 
objections  against  the  enterprise.  This  arose  from  four  causes.  1st.  The 
court  of  Vienna  has  always  been  jealous  of  France,  and  opposed  every 
movement  which  tended  to  promote  intercourse  between  that  country  and 
Italy.  I'or  this  reason,  until  the  present  generation,  there  was  no  road 
even  from  Nice  to  Genoa,  although  these  two  cities  both  stood  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  belonged  to  the  same  State,  and  carried  on 
extensive  reciprocal  conimcrce.  An  incident  worth  relating,  finally  gave 


253 


The  Railways  of  Italy. 

origin  to  the  })cautirul  road  on  which  the  traveller  now  winds  along  the 
magnilicent  riviera  that  lies  between  Genoa  and  Nice.  The  Sardinian 
kiir  v !’  ut  the  year  1820,  happening  to  be  detained  at  Nice  (whither  he 
haa  g >ii3  on  a royal  visit)  by  a violent  storm,  which  lasted  several  days, 
and  made  it  dangerous  to  embark,  said  peevishly,  to  the  governor  of  the 
town,  “Why  have  you  never  built  a road  up  to  Genoa'/”  The  governor 
replied,  “Your  majesty  will  remember  that  we  have  long  ago  prayed  you 
to  grant  us  permission  to  build  this  road ; and  such  is  the  anxiety  to  have 
it,  1 assure  your  majesty  we  could  build  it  in  two  days,  with  your  royal 
assent.”  ^^Ehhene!'’^  exclaimed  the  old  king;  “build  the  road  in  two 
days,  and  you  shall  be  rewarded.”  He  supposed  it  impossible.  The  de- 
cree  went  forth  ; the  inhabitants  of  Nice,  of  all  ranks,  rushed  with  shouts 
to  the  work  ; the  peasants  flocked  down  from  the  neighboring  mountains; 
even  priests,  women,  and  children,  flew  to  the  spade  and  the  pick-axe ; 
and  in  a few  hours,  the  clifls  along  the  sea  were  swarming  with  work- 
men. In  two  days  the  road  was  made,  and  the  king  passed  over  it.  It 
was  afterwards  Macadamized,  and  it  is  now  one  of  the  most  substantial, 
and  probably  the  most  beautiful  road  in  the  world.  But  Austria  inter- 
fered ; and,  at  the  demand  of  Metternich,  the  poor  governor  of  Nice  was 
sacrificed  to  Austrian  vengeance. 

2d.  The  policy  of  Austria  is  to  discourage  all  new  inventions  and  move- 
ments, particularly  anything  connected  with  steam.  It  is  said  that  the 
hoary  Metternich  once  declared,  that  “a  steam  cotton-factory  is  bad 
enough,  away  in  a secluded  valley  of  Hungary ; but  to  see  one  of  those 
democratic,  heretic  monsters,  within  the  limits  of  Austrian  proper,  he 
swore  by  Virgins  and  Holy  Alliances,  it  should  never  be.”  But  even 
Metternich  has  found  steam  too  strong  for  him. 

3d.  Austria  has  always  felt  some  jealousy  of  the  present  king  of  Sar- 
dinia. Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  policy  of  His  Majesty  of  Sar- 
dinia, might  think  there  was  nothing  very  alarming  in  his  tendency  to 
liberalism  ; and  yet  he  is  really  inclined  to  be  liberal.  He  would  be  more 
so,  if  it  were  not  that  Austria  holds  the  sword  in  terrorem  over  his  head. 
Particularly  within  the  past  few  years,  the  Sardinian  States  have  been 
advancing  rapidly,  (I  use  the  word  in  an  Italian  acceptation,  and  not  in 
our  electro-magnetic,  chain-lightning  sense.)  Genoa  has  received  a new 
start.  The  importation  of  cotton  has  increased  from  9,000  bales  in  1838, 
to  50,000  in  1846.  With  so  many  appearances  of  advancement  and 
prosperity,  the  court  of  Vienna  has  regarded  this  new  movement  of  the 
railway  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Alps,  with  great  jealousy. 

4th.  Another  reason,  which  has  probably  had  still  more  weight,  is,  that 
the  building  of  this  road  will  injure  Trieste  most  directly.  That  seaport, 
whose  importance  has  been  so  sensibly  magnified,  by  the  immense  in- 
crease of  American  and  English  commerce,  within  the  past  ten  years, 
(as  appeared  in  an  able  article  in  the  Magazine,  published  in  1844,  Voi. 
X,)  will  receive  a heavy  blow  by  the  opening  of  this  road.  English  and 
American  vessels  will  no  longer  make  the  long  and  hazardous  voyage 
around  the  peninsula,  when  inland  transportation  can  deliver  those  cargoes 
intended  for  the  interior  of  Lombardy,  and  other  Austrian  provinces,  with 
a saving  of  time,  risk,  and  expense.  Already  a large  number  of  cargoes 
designed  for  the  Austrian  States,  have  arrived  at  Genoa.  Indeed,  the 
cotton  and  tobacco  intended  for  Milan,  which  once  went  round  to  Trieste, 
now  stops  at  Genoa,  and  is  sent  across  the  mountains  in  carts  drawn  by 


254 


The  Railways  of  Italy. 

long  trains  of  mules,  and  heavy  Swiss  horses.  A saving  can  even  ])0 
effected  hy  horsc-carriage.  Jhjt  when  this  journey  can  ])e  made  in  six 
hours,  and  at  a saving  of  80  percent  in  expemse,  the  change  will  he  im- 
mense. 

Jiesides,  the  increase  in  the  manufacture  of  raw  cottotj  throughout 
Switzerland,  Sardinia,  and  the  (ierniiinic  States,  is  incredible.  Already 
the  States  which  constitute  the  ZolhVerein,  from  l)eiug  tlu*  great  customers 
of  England,  have  turned  to  he  her  formidahle  rivals  ; and  I'higlish  manu- 
factured goods,  after  being  almost  excluded  from  that  |)art  of  the  world, 
are  at  last  being  driven  out  of  Italy.  All  through  the  peninsula,  the  cotton 
and  woollen  goods  of  Prussia  and  (iermaii}^,  vVustria  and  Switzerland,  are 
finding  their  way;  and  not  many  years  will  pass  by,  before  I'higland  will 
entirely  lose  the  continental  markets.  iMiglisli  statesmen  were  warnerl 
of  this  by  Dr.  Powering,  and  other  advocates  of  free  trade.  As  long  ago 
as  1835,  the  Commissioners  of  the  Zoll-Verein  proposed  some  great  com- 
mercial arrangement  by  which  their  productions  shonld  be  admitted  into 
England  at  reduced  duties,  with  a reciprocal  advantage  of  a correspond- 
ing reduction  on  the  tariffs  upon  English  goods.  'I’hese  considerations 
were  enforced  upon  English  ministers,  by  all  the  chxjuence  and  indubi- 
table statistics  of  Jiowering,  without  avail.  IJe  told  them  that  without 
some  relaxation  in  the  blind  and  suicidal  f)olicy  of  the  liritish  tariff,  Eng- 
land would  drive  the  Germans  into  rivalry.  In  less  than  ten  years  his 
words  were  proved  true,  and  the  Germanic  States  arc  now  bristling  with 
steam-engines,  and  all  their  green  valleys  are  ringing  to  the  clear  music 
of  artificial  waterfalls.  So  much  for  the  policy  of  protection,  applied  to  a 
single  case.  Sir  Robert  Peel  discovered  this  fatal  mistake  ; but,  as  he 
himself  declared,  too  late  to  correct  it : the  evil  was  wrought ; the  acts 
of  the  whig  ministry  could  not  be  recalled  ! 

At  this  formidable  crisis  the  king  gave  his  assent  to  the  Genoa  and 
Alps  railroad,  and  the  work  has  begun  with  considerable  vigor.  The 
great  tunnel,  which  enters  the  mountain  that  overcharges  Genoa  on  the 
North,  will  come  out  on  the  level  plains  of  Piedmont ; alter  which,  no  ob- 
stacle will  be  encountered  till  130  miles  bring  the  road  to  the  Alps.  This 
tunnel  is  a stupendous  undertaking;  it  will  be,  by  far,  the  longest  in  the 
world.  The  king,  who  has  taken  80,000,000  francs  of  the  stock,  clearly 
perceives  that  his  interests  are  deeply  concerned  in  the  rapid  completion 
of  this  great  enterprise,  and  he  is  determined  it  shall  not  be  delayed. 

This  is,  immeasurably,  the  most  important  of  all  the  projected  railways 
of  Italy ; its  stock  will  probably  prove  the  most  valuable,  and  I presume 
it  will  be  one  of  the  first  of  the  great  lines  completed. 

A foreigner,  unacquainted  with  the  commercial  state  of  this  country 
and  of  the  Mediterranean,  would  not  at  once  perceive  the  consequences 
of  the  completion  of  this  road.  It  is  estimated  that  by  it  the  commerce 
of  Genoa  will,  at  least,  be  quadrupled  ; and  this  is  probably  no  extrava- 
gant estimate.  Genoa  must  then  become  the  port  of  entry  and  re-ship- 
rnent  for  a great  portion  of  the  cotton,  tobacco,  hides,  machinery,  and 
manufactured  goods  consumed  in  Lombardy,  Switzerland,  and  several  of 
the  (jcrman  provinces.  America  is  thus  directly  interested  in  this  move- 
ment. Already,  in  advance,  a company  of  ca[)italists  has  been  formed  in 
Genoa,  tin’  the  |)urchase  of  cotton  in  America  ; it  is  shipped  to  Genoa,  and 
then  sent  through  Piedmont  in  transitu^  unto  the  central  parts  of  Europe. 
In  driving  this  competition  with  the  merchants  of  Trieste,  who  are  aided 


The  Railways  of  Italy. 


by  Rothschilds’  agent  with  all  the  money  they  need,  they  have  made  hand- 
some speculations ; and  cotton  has,  during  the  last  twelve  months,  held 
higher  prices  in  this  market  than  in  almost  any  part  of  Europe.  A few 
days  ago  I sold  a cargo  of  damaged  cotton,  at  the  consulate,  for  an  unpre- 
cedentedly high  price.  This  was  owing  to  Lombard  and  Genoese  com- 
petition in  the  sale.  When  this  road  is  completed,  new  facilities  will  be 
rendered  to  the  German  manufacturers  ; for  every  return  train  of  cars  will 
bring  back  their  cotton  fabrics,  to  be  scattered  along  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

Another  aspect,  not  less  interesting,  should  be  considered.  It  is  already 
reduced  to  a certainty,  that  the  long-talked-of  enterprise  of  opening  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  is  to  be  eflected  by  England,  France,  and  Egypt.  The 
negotiations  are  completed,  and  it  is  said  the  work  is  begun.  If  the  plan 
be  consummated,  as  is  now  proposed,  it  will  be  attended  with  immense 
results — which  can  hardly  be  conceived,  much  less  developed  in  a short 
article.  Constantinople  will  lose  much  of  its  importance  ; for  it  will  cease 
to  be,  in  a great  measure,  the  entrepot  of  India  commerce.  The  passage 
by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  will  be  less  frequented,  and  Genoa  will  be- 
come still  more  important,  as  the  entrepot  of  the  commerce  of  the  East  to 
the  centre  of  Europe.  It  will  indeed  be  a strange  spectacle,  if  we  should 
see  Genoa  once  more  restored  to  her  former  grandeur.  During  the  middle 
ages  this  little  city  controlled,  in  a great  degree,  the  commerce  of  the 
world.  The  wealth  of  Asia,  and  of  the  North  of  Europe,  was  poured  in 
a golden  stream  into  her  voluptuous  bosom.  She  reached  a pitch  of 
commercial  power  and  glory,  which  probably  surpassed  Palmyra,  Thebes, 
Alexandria,  and  Tyre.  But  the  discovery  of  the  passage  of  Good  Hope, 
was  her  ruin.  The  commerce  of  the  world  was  changed.  The  stream 
which  had  for  ages  poured  itself  into  the  City  of  Palaces,  vvas  diverted 
into  other  channels,  and  her  ruin  was  almost  as  complete  as  that  of  the 
commercial  cities  of  the  East,  whose  columns  now  moulder  on  the  desert. 
And  now  that  stream  will  again  flow  towards  her  shores.  It  will  not 
bring  the  tide  of  wealth  it  once  brought,  and  she  will  not  share  it  alone, 
but  she  will  have  her  part ; and,  if  this  great  road  is  the  first  one  com- 
pleted, her  carrying  trade  will  be  immense. 

It  was  at  first  proposed  to  put  the  Sardinian  army  at  work  on  this  stu- 
pendous undertaking,  and  100,000  men  could  soon  have  completed  it.  But 
there  were  found  to  exist  two  insuperable  objections  to  this  politic  and 
worthy  design.  Apprehensions  were  entertained  lest  the  disaffection  of 
the  army  might  break  out  into  open  mutiny,  if  the  lazy  loungers,  long 
accustomed  to  the  indolence  of  the  garrison,  were  put  to  work ; and  it 
was  also  feared,  that  while  the  soldiers  were  taken  from  their  posts  and 
concentrated  upon  a well-known  point,  the  people  might  rise  in  rebellion. 
No  enlightened  statesman  would  have  felt  any  such  apprehensions,  for 
there  is  no  disposition  among  the  Sardinians  to  resist  the  dominion  of  the 
king.  But  Italy  has  long  been  the  scene  of  insurrections  and  popular 
movements,  and  all  the  princes  of  the  peninsula  are  haunted  by  the 
ghosts  of  rebellion. 

Thus  one  of  the  most  salutary  and  enlightened  measures  of  our  times, 
was  sacrificed  to  the  imbecile  fears  of  a minister;  and  while  100,000 
young  men  are  taken  from  their  families,  and  trades,  and  fields,  to  waste 
the  best  seven  years  of  a man’s  life,  (from  18  to  26,)  and  trained  up  in 
ignorance,  indolence,  and  vice,  and  then  abandoned  to  poverty,  laziness, 


2r)0  The  UdUways  of  Tialy. 

and  crime,  unfit,  for  all  the  occupations  of  life,  and  dis(|ualified  for  all  the 
noble  duties  of  citizenship,  another  100,000  must  he  Oihioj  from  their  pur- 
suits  to  build  this  road,  and  then  return,  reluctantly,  ' nore  corrupt 
habits  than  ever,  to  the  monotonous  occupations  they  * n ved  }jef<;rc. 
Such  arc  some  ol  the  hydra-evils  of  absolute  government  in  our  times; 
such  the  curse  of  an  overwhelming  standing  many,  which,  in  time  of 
peace,  is  worse  than  the  scourge  of  a desolating  and’tilthy  band  of  locusts, 
eating  up  the  substance  of  the  land,  and  scattering  their  foul  exenunent 
wherever  they  hover.  This  great  (icjioa  and  Turin  road  is  gf)ing  on 
slowly,  but  it  will  be  completed,  probably,  in  three  years.  We  made  an 
effort  to  procure  for  Norris  Co.,  of  riiiladclphia,  the  manufacturing  of  the 
engines;  and  if  I had  not,  at  that  time,  been  compelletl  to  go  to  America, 
T believe  1 could  have  consummated  the  negotiation.  Jlut  the  influence  of 
the  British  minister  at  'J'urin,  obtained  the  contract  for'!  aylor,  of  ICngland, 
and  he  has  already  founded  a branch  of  his  establishment  near  (ienoa,  and 
been  aided  by  several  million  francs,  by  the  government  of  II is  Majesty. 

The  second  line  (in  importance)  of  those  already  in  progress,  is  the 
road  from  Trieste  and  Venice  to  .Milan.  Austria,  alarmed  at  the  progress 
of  the  Sardinian  State,  has  begun  to  bestir  herself,  and  the  great  road 
connecting  Milan  with  the  Adriatic,  is  rapidly  going  forward. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  to  dwell  long  u{)on  this  line.  From  what  I have 
already  said  of  the  Cenoa  and  Turin  road,  your  readers  will  perceive  the 
importance  of  this  enterprise.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  only  hope  for  Trieste  and 
the  commerce  of  Austria ; and  even  Mettcriiich  is  compelled,  by  the 
bankers  of  the  Austrian  empire,  and  the  interests  of  its  subjects,  to  favor 
the  iiitroduction  of  those  whistling,  foaming,  thundering,  liellowing,  rum- 
bling, and  lightning  horses,  which  annihilate  space,  and  cat  nothing  but 
fire  and  water. 

The  new  Pontiff— the  great  Pio  IX. — who  has  astonished  all  Europe 
with  his  reforms  in  church  and  State,  and  risen  like  a star  of  promise  on 
the  dark  brow  of  Rome,  has  proclaimed  railroads  throughout  the  Pontifi- 
cal  States,  and  already  four  great  lines  are  in  progress,  diverging  from 
Rome  to  the  four  points  of  the  compass.  One  runs  South  till  it  strikes 
the  frontiers  of  Naples,  where  it  will  communicate  with  the  northern  rail- 
way,  coming  up  from  Naples  ; for  in  the  general  movement,  the  king  of 
the  Sicilies  is  determined  not  to  be  outdone  by  other  States,  and  he  will 
“ run  a small  opposition”  to  the  puffing,  blowing,  wheezing,  rumbling, 
and  bellowing  freaks  of  Mount  Vesuvius. 

The  second  Roman  line  leads  from  the  city  to  the  western  coast — to 
Civita-Vecchia — 45  miles.  The  third  strikes  off  to  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  ])eninsula.  The  fourth  advances  towards  the  Noith,  where  it  will 
meet  the  Tuscan  line.  A considerable  number  of  smaller  roads,  most  of 
them  side-tracks,  are  also  in  progress. 

III.  The  number  of  roads  projected,  is  legion;  most  of  them  will 
probably  never  be  built.  The  Italians  will  not  even  build  thpse  already 
iti  progress,  and  most  of  the  stock  in  the  Roman  roads,  is  taken  in  liondon. 
They  Vvdll,  in  fact,  be  Anglo-Italian  enterprises.  I need  not  dwell  on  this 
]>oint. 

I will  now  brielly  speak  of  the  resources  on  which  these  raihvays  must 
de[)end  for  support.  Very  few  of  them  can  ever  yield  a large  revenue; 
but  money  boars  a low  interest  throughout  all  these  States — and  after  all 
that  has  been  said  about  the  ruin  of  Italy,  there  is  no  doubt  that  if  there 


257 


The  Commerce  of  the  West  Indies. 

was  the  same  spirit  of  speculation  here  as  in  England  or  America,  the 
only  ditTiculty  would  he  in  the  exorbitant  rise  of  the  stock.  There  are  in 
Genoa  alone,  ten  private  men  who  could,  either  of  them,  build  an  expen- 
sive road,  “ without  feeling  it but  the  repetition  of  revolutions,  has  made 
them  timid  of  all  speculative  investments. 

All  the  roads,  except  those  of  I^ombardy  and  Piedmont,  must  depend 
principally  upon  passengers  for  their  support,  and  the  passengers  will  be 
chiefly  foreigners.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are,  annually,  150,000 
foreigners  in  Italy.  When  these  roads  are  completed,  the  facilities  for 
travelling  will  be  vastly  augmented,  and  the  number  of  travellers  will 
increase  in  a corresponding  ratio.  The  Italians  will  also  acquire,  for 
the  same  reasons,  the  hahil  of  travelling — which  is  nothing  but  a habit, 
and  to  be  acquired  like  others — and  intercourse  will  greatly  increase  be- 
tween diflerent  States,  and  people  of  the  same  government.  One  item  of 
consideral)le  importance,  is  not  overlooked  by  capitalists.  The  year  of 
“The  Jubilee  of  the  Catholic  World”  is  approaching;  it  will  take  place 
in  1850,  which  will  soon  be  upon  us.  So  unlimited  is  the  enthusiasm  felt 
throughout  Europe  for  the  new  Pontiff,  it  is  believed  that  even  if  this 
jubilee  were  to  take  place  this  summer,  not  less  than  a million  of  people 
would  rush  into  Italy.  From  a long  familiarity  with  the  Italian  character, 
I am  inclined  to  believe  that  an  equal  number  of  Italians,  themselves, 
would  flock  to  Rome  on  that  grand  occasion.  It  will  be  a matter  of  no 
little  importance,  to  have  these  roads  completed  by  that  time. 

The  number  of  foreigners  in  Italy  is  every  year  increasing,  and  will 
continue  to  increase  in  the  future.  This  little  peninsula  has  long  been, 
and  always  will  be,  the  Mecca  of  the  Scholar,  the  Artist,  and  the  Christian. 
The  Scholar  comes  to  these  ancient  haunts  of  empire,  where  the  torch  of 
learning  once  blazed  so  brilliantly,  to  wander  over  the  mouldering  columns 
of  “dead  empires,”  and  at  the  tombs  of  Virgil,  Cicero,  Tasso,  and  Dante, 
renew  his  enthusiasm  for  the  golden  dreams  of  science.  The  Artist  comes 
to  bow  in  reverence  before  the  shrines  of  Raphael  and  Michel  Angelo,  and 
try,  with  a hand  trembling  with  filial  reverence,  to  trace  the  inimitable 
outlines  of  these  divine  masters.  And  the  Christian  feels  that  theie  is  in 
all  the  world  no  spot  so  holy,  after  the  hill  on  which  the  Son  of  Man  died. 
When  the  pilgrim  uncovers  his  white  locks  under  the  lofty  dome  of  St. 
Peter,  the  first  emotion  of  sublimity  and  veneration  which  chills  his  veins, 
seems  worth  more  to  him  than  all  the  other  days  of  his  life. 

C.  E.  L, 

Genoaj  May  25,  1847. 


Art.  IV.— Tim  COMMERCE  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES. 

West  India  Islands,  now  forming  a part  of  the  colonial  possessions 
of  Great, Britain,  from  the  peculiar  value  of  their  staple  products,  and  the 
enterprise  vvirich  has  been  employed  in  developing  their  resources,  have 
long  constituted  a 'prroaunent  theatre  of  trade  and  commerce.  With  a 
territory  yielding  in  the  greatest,  abundance  the  fruits  of  the  tropics,  as 
well  as  the  more  solid  staples  of  eomrnercial  export,  they  possess,  from 
their  position,  surrounded  by  the  navigable  Avate.!^  of  the  ocean,  extraordi- 
nary advantages  for  the  prosecution  of  commerciar  entej'prises,  which,  as 
it  is  probably  well  known,  iiavc  been  improved  to  a great  extent  by  oujr 
VOL.  XVII. NO.  III.  17  " 


258 


The  Commerce  of  the  West  Indies. 

own  country.  Ft  is  our  present  desi^^n  to  exhi]>it  the  prominent  file's  con- 
nected with  the  commercial  operations  of  lliosc  islands,  since  thfre  is 
probaldy  no  foreign  colony  near  our  own  ports,  whi<  h has  heini  more 
closely  connected  with  us  in  commercial  cMter[)rises,  diiriii^^  the  early 
period  of  our  existence  as  a nation,  than  the  colonies  of  the  West  Indies. 
'Phose  colonies  consist  of  the  islands  of  Jamaica,  Antigua,  llarhadoes, 
Dominica,  Grenada,  Montserrat,  Nevis,  Ht.  Christopher,  St.  I.ucia,  St. 
Vincent,  Tobago,  'JWola,  J'rinidad,  Bahamas,  Bermudas,  Demarara, 
Berbice,  and  Honduras. 

We  would  commence  with  the  island  of  Jamaica  : and  it  may  be  re- 
marked, that  this  island  is  about  J50  miles  long,  55  broad,  and  contains 
about  4,000,000  of  ao'cs.  It  is  extremely  well  watered,  and  the  face  of 
the  country  is  varied  by  ridges  of  cloufl-capped  mountains,  covered  with 
dense  forests,  hills  crowned  with  groves  of  pimento,  extensive  savannas, 
or  plains,  picturesque  valleys  clotlicd  with  tropical  vegetation,  and  watered 
])y  numerous  rivers,  bays,  and  creeks.  Possessing  many  harbors  and 
shipping-stations,  which  afford  good  anchorage,  it  has  numerous  settle- 
ments which  are  prominent  depots  of  trade,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  Kingston.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  favorable  to  the  production  of 
sugar  and  coffee,  and  the  fruits  are  various.  Of  vegetable  ju’oductions, 
the  yam  and  cassava  are  common,  and  the  products  of  the  garden  arc 
here  found  in  almost  infinite  variety.  Some  of  the  fruits  are,  indeed,  in 
perfection  during  the  entire  year.  The  bread-fruit  tree,  cocoa-nut,  plan- 
tain, banana,  the  alligator  pear,  the  mellow  fig,  the  pine,  cashew,  pawpaw, 
and  custard  apple,  the  mango,  grape,  guava,  pomegranate,  soursop,  shad- 
dock, plum,  tamarind,  chestnut,  mulberry,  olive,  date,  citron,  and  many 
nther  fruits,  are  found  in  perfection.  Extensive  groves  of  the  orange,  the 
lemon,  and  the  lime,  abound  in  the  island.  So,  also,  does  maize,  and  the 
■sweet  potato.  It  yields,  also,  ^ abundance  of  drugs  and  spices  : aloes, 
cochineal,  spikenard,  cunella,  liquorice-root,  castor-oil -nut,  vanilla,  pep- 
pers, arrow-root,  ginger,  ipecacuanha,  scammony,  jalap,  cassia,  euphorbia, 
and  senna.  The  principal  exports  from  the  colony,  however,  are  sugar, 
rum,  molasses,  ginger,  pimento,  and  coffee.  The  shipping  of  this  island 
is  considerable,  the  total  number  of  vessels  inwards,  during  the  year  1836, 
being  772,  employing  a tonnage  of  112,075  tons,  and  7,170  men;  and 
the  amount  of  shipping  outwards,  during  the  same  period,  was  782  ves- 
sels, with  a tonnage  of  119,066  tons,  employing  7,510  men. 

A comprehensive  article,  in  Simmonds’  Colonial  {London)  Magazine, 
for  March,  1847,  furnishes  some  recent  authentic  information,  of  the 
present  and  prospective  trade  of  this  island:  and  as  it  contains  statements 
of  interest  to  the  commerce  of  the  United  States,  xve  have  concluded  to 
give  it  entire,  as  follows  : — 

On  reviewing'  the  mercantile  events  of  the  past  year,  we  recognise  nothing  on 
which  to  congratulate  our  commercial  friends.  The  entire  twelvemonth  was  one 
scene  of  unexampled  commercial  distress,  induced  by  circumstances  which  might, 
we  confess,  liave  been  in  some  degree  avoided,  and  others  which  it  was  not  in  our 
power  to  control.  An  import  disproportioned  to  the  wants  of  the  community,  was 
met  by  almost  overwhelming  agricultural  difficulties.  The  drought  which  com- 
menced about  the  end  of  1845,  and  continued  until  July  last,  was  productive,  as  is 
well  known,  of  injury  and  loss  to  the  jiroprietors,  to  an  amount  which  we  cannot  even 
at  this  moment  estimate  ; and  numbers  of  laborers,  whose  prosperity  depended  on 
that  of  their  masters,  were  thrown  out  of  employment  by  the  afiliction  with  wliich 
it  had  ])lcascd  Brovidence  to  visit  this  island,  and  the  free  circulation  of  money 


A CLERGYMAN’S  STUDY  OF  THE  “STRANDED” 


2515 


vhen  out  of  a job  proceed  upon  the  theory 
itated  by  a man  who  told  me  that  he  had 
valked  in  from  Paterson,  N.  J.,  to  spend  three 
lays  in  New  York,  even  though  he  meant  to 
^0  back  at  the  end  of  that  time  to  another  job 
)f  work  in  Paterson,  “Because,”  he  said,  “in 
Mew  York  you  can’t  quite  starve:  they  don’t 
iare  let  you.  ” Thus  it  is  that  there  are  40,- 
Doo  men  in  the  cheap  lodging-houses  of  the 
Lower  East  Side,  and  there  are  20,000  others 
living  in  cheap  “furnished  rooms.  ” 

Of  the  half  whose  stories  are  true,  the 
stories  themselves  sometimes  tell  a tale. 
When  you  read  between  the  lines  it  is  easy  to 
discover  some  special  source  of  difficulty. 
This  may  be  nothing  more  or  less  than  lazi- 
ness; it  may  be  lack  of  opportunity;  it  may 
be  base  rascality;  it  may  be  sheer  incompe- 
tence; it  may  be  the  effect  of  life  under  con- 
ditions which  few  who  have  not  lived  it  can 
realize.  One  who  has  listened  for  a year  to 
stories  from  these  people  has  learned  , many 
things  about  some  common  forms  of  daily 
work  which  create  sympathy  because  of  the 
hardness  of  these  conditions:  for  example, 
the  case  of  a cab-driver  who  contracted  pneu- 
monia sitting  for  twelve  hours  in  the  rain; 
the  case  of  a painter  who  suffered  from  blood- 
poison;  the  case  of  a longshoreman  (whose 
work  is  perhaps  the  most  brutal  of  all  the 
work  that  human  beings  ever  do)  who  had 
frozen  off  one  foot  and  both  his  hands.  One 
thing  that  I have  seen  is  the  horrid  condition 
of  loneliness  of  the  life  of  the  average  inmate 
of  a so-called  “furnished  room”;  another 
thing  I have  learned  is  the  absurdly  small 
amount  upon  which  people  actually  go  on 
living  indefinitely  from  day  to  day  when  out 
of  work;  while  still  another  is  the  sordid  con- 
dition of  life  in  the  city’s  ten-cent  and  fifteen- 
cent  lodging-houses.  Besides,  one  is  sur- 
prised to  find  the  number  of  people  who  have 
lost  estates  through  the  villainy  of  lawyers, 
the  number  of  people  who  have  furniture  in 
storage,  the  number  of  working  men  in  New 
York  who  have  neither  home  nor  family  and 
the  number  of  people  who  live  from  hand  to 
mouth  from  week  to  week  and  never  in  their 
lives  have  had  a bank  account. 

Last  of  all  the  things  that  one  learns  and 
that  most  of  all  surprises  him  is  the  relative 
number  of  persons  of  different  nationalities 
who  ask  for  aid.  The  revelation  in  this  mat- 
ter is  enough  to  give  those  pause  who  cry  so 


loud  against  foreign  immigration.  For  of 
all  those  who  have  come  to  me  by  far  the 
largest  number  were  poor,  native  Americans. 
Next  to  these  were  Irish;  next  to  these  were 
English;  next  were  Germans;  and,  either  last 
of  all  or  not  at  all,  the  members  of  those  very 
races  we  have  always  most  decried. 

There  must,  however,  be  real  causes  why 
such  people  are  in  such  a state,  no  matter 
whether  what  ’they  tell  be  true  or  false. 
Perhaps  a few  of  the  more  important  causes 
are  these:  first  of  all,  some  do  it  merely  be 
cause  they  like  the  game;  the  part  they  play 
is  an  actor’s  part — the  element  of  conquest 
and  uncertainty  being  as  fascinating  to  some 
natures  and  approaching  in  the  pleasure  of  it 
all  the  joy  of  gambling.  Of  the  young  men 
who  call,  some  are  merely  prodigals  off  on  a 
spree;  their  stories  are  true  and  telegrams 
sent  to  their  parents  will  often  bring  back  the 
reply — ‘ ‘ He  is  mine ; send  him  home.  ’ ’ Some- 
times again  the  answer  to  the  same  kind  of  a 
telegram  will  read — “Know  him,  always  was 
a ne’er  do-well.  Give  no  more  money.  Only 
cure  for  his  state  is  to  let  him  suffer.  ” 

Of  course,  the  thing  which  most  of  all  has 
wrought  downfall  is  the  use  of  liquor  and,  in  a 
surprisingly  large  number  of  cases  in  this  same 
group  must  be  added  the  victims  of  opium, 
morphine,  cocaine  and  other  drugs.  But 
last  of  all  is  that  large  class  who  are  nothing 
more  or  less  than  lazy.  Of  these  the  most 
outspoken  was  an  Englishman  who  came  to 
me  and,  in  his  broadest  brogue,  explained 
that  he  wished  me  to  use  my  influence  to  get 
him  in  an  hospital.  He  had  made  an  applica- 
tion in  each  one  of  seven  hospitals  within  the 
city  limits  and  in  each  case  he  had  been  unable 
to  persuade  the  doctors  that  there  was  any- 
thing the  matter  with  him.  He  looked  well 
and  hearty  and  I asked  him  what  his  trouble 
really  was.  He  explained  that  he  was  tired 
and  wanted  for  a week  to  lie  in  bed  and  to 
rest. 

What  shall  be  done  with  these  people  ? 
The  clergy  confess  their  perplexity.  They 
realize  the  pressing  need  for  something  to  be 
done,  and  quickly.  The  problem  is  becoming 
so  large  they  simply  cannot  cope  with  it. 
Perhaps  more  people  have  approached  them 
during  this  last  year  than  upon  any  year  be- 
fore, and  that  in  the  face  of  the  fact  that  times 
were  never  quite  so  good  and  there  never  was 
so  little  reason  why  men  should  be  in  distress. 


THE  HIGHEST  OF  ALL  RAILROADS 


THE  ENGINEERINC;  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  OROYA  RAILROAD  OF  PERU 

BY 

E.  C ROST 


Illustrated  from  photograplis  taken  by  the  author 


TO  leave  the  hot  tropics,  eiglit  degrees 
south  of  the  Equator,  at  eight  o’clock 
in  the  morning  and  arrive  up  among 
perpetual  snow  and  glaciers  at  four  o’clock  in 
the  afternoon  of  the  same  day,  is  a feat  that 
can  be  accomplished  only  on  the  Oroya  Rail- 
road in  Peru,  known  as  the  Ferro  Carril  Cen- 
tral del  Peru,  without  doubt  the  most  wonder- 
ful railroad  ever  constructed.  It  was  built 
by  Americans,  Messrs.  Meigs  and  Thorndike. 
The  total  length  of  the  line  from  Callao  to 
Oroya  is  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  miles 
and  the  cost  was  forty-three  millions  of  dollars 
($43,000,000).  In  the  morning  you  wear  the 
thinnest  of  linen,  in  the  early  afternoon  you 
shiver  in  the  heaviest  of  overcoats.  Passenger 
trains  leave  but  twice  a week  each  way.  We 
steamed  slowly  out  of  the  Lima  depot  at  eight 
o’clock  in  the  morning.  Our  train  consisted 
of  four  cars,  built  and  patterned  after  the  cars 
in  use  on  our  great  trunk  lines,  and  was  drawn 
by  an  American  locomotive. 

At  Chosica,  thirty-three  miles  from  Lima 
and  two  thousand  feet  altitude,  we  come  to  the 
first  V — a switch  system  introduced  on  this 
line.  The  locomotive  draws  the  cars  over  one 
section,  then  runs  on  to  a V-switch  and  pushes 
the  cars  over  the  next  section.  The  entire 
road  to  the  summit  being  a four-per-cent, 
grade,  the  great  elevation  is  gained  in  this 
manner  without  traveling  round  and  round 
the  mountains  to  make  the  ascent.  This  zig- 
zag switch-back  system  is  used  over  the  entire 
line.  We  j;ass  a few  unimportant  .stations  and 
arrive  at  .San  Hartolome,  forty-seven  miles 
away  anrl  of  four  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
lifty-nine  fef*t  altitude;  here  are  several  side- 
Irafks  iMTinitting  trains  to  jiass  each  other. 
I'onr  miles  from  h{;re  we  cross  the  famous 
\ ernigas  briflge,  in  itself  one  of  the  greatest  of 
railro.'el  bridges,  ami  built  in  Philadeljihia. 

‘ kirling  a prcf’ipiei;  where  we  see  the  Rio 
i^eni.'ie  llif>m;amls  of  fec-t  biilow  us,  we  sto])  at 
Matm  ana.  '[  he  walls  of  the  Andes  tower  up  far 


above  the  clouds,  and  between  them  there  cuts 
a ravine  or  a bottomless  abyss.  How  man  ever 
surveyed  such  a road  seems  beyond  solution. 
In  some  places  on  these  all  but  perpendicular 
walls  there  is  no  foothold  for  even  an 
animal.  Here  the  surveyors  were  slung  over 
the  cliffs  and  hehl  suspended  by  a rope  from 
above,  with  a rocky  floor  thousands  of  feet 
below  them.  It  has  been  said  that  Vesuvius, 
if  it  were  dropped  into  some  of  the  crevices 
here,  would  be  practically  lost  to  view. 

The  engineering  problems  accomplished  are 
amazing.  In  one  section  the  road-bed  was 
once  the  bottom  of  the  raging  torrents  of  the 
Remac  before  a tunnel  was  constructed  per- 
mitting these  volumes  of  water  to  pass  below. 

After  passing  San  Mateo,  a modern  Amer- 
ican-built steel  bridge  spans  the  torrents  of  the 
river  Remac,  the  bridge  spans  suspended 
from  the  opposite  mouths  of  two  tunnels. 
A little  farther  on  is  a narrow  pass  with  such 
huge  walls  towering  above  us  on  either  side 
that  the  sky  is  shut  out,  giving  an  effect  similar 
to  that  within  a tunnel,  when  the  entrance 
becomes  smaller,  and  finally  cannot  be  seen. 

Toward  the  summit  we  look  up  toward  white 
snow  and  green  glaciers,  then — although  we 
are  near  the  Equator — all  is  hidden  by  a sudden 
snow-squall  which  in  a few  moments  passes 
over  us.  A sudden  turn  in  the  road  reveals  the 
entrance  to  the  Galera  tunnel.  Half  way 
through  this  one  and  one-half  mile  tunnel  we 
pass  the  place  where  the  acme  of  railroading 
has  been  reached,  fifteen  thousand  six  hundred 
and  sixty-five  feet  in  a perpendicular  line  above 
tlie  level  of  the  sea  or  one  thousand  four  hun- 
dred and  forty-five  feet  higlier  than  the  sum- 
mit of  Pike’s  Peak  in  Colorado,  on  a level  with 
the  Summit  of  Mont  Blanc  in  Switzerland. 

Tlie  real  interest  centres,  however,  in  the  re- 
turn trip,  if  one  is  so  fortunate  as  to  fall  into 
the  good  graces  of  tlie  superintendent — and  he 
is  a most  hosiiitable  person  who,  in  my  case, 
not  only  sent  the  American  road-master  with 


THE  HIGHEST  OF  ALL  RAILROADS 


2517 


THE  HUGE  WALLS  TOWERING  ABOVE  ON  EITHER 
SIDE” 


me  but  also  furnished  me  with  a “hand-car” 
which  from_  Galera  tunnel  runs  by  its  own 
momentum  to  the  Pacific  shores;  this  gave  us 
the  opportunity  of  stopping  whenever  we 
chose  to  make  photographs.  We  left  the 
Atlantic  side  of  the  tunnel  in  a blinding  snow- 
storm, our  car  lieing  pushed  by  an  Indian  to 
the  centre  of  the  tunnel  where  the  descent 
begins.  From  here  we  rushed  through  darkness 
and  soon  found  ourselves  at  the  Pacific  en- 
trance of  the  tunnel  and  the  weather  condi- 
tions entirHy  changed.  Here  was  a bright  sun, 
crisp  air  and  an  azure  sky  above.  We  were 
soon  overtaken,  however,  by  several  snow- 


squalls  and  for  that  reason  1 later  on  made  a 
second  trip.  Then  it  was  that  I enjoyed  the 
most  remarkable  experience  I ever  had,  our 
car  making  in  some  places  easily  sixty  miles  an 
hour. 

One  can  coast  from  tlie  tunnel  one 
hundred  and  six  miles  to  sea  level,  dashing  at 
lightning  speed  through  dark  tunnels,  over  a 
bridge,  then  around  curves  so  sliarp  that  onh' 
a few  feet  ahead  are  seen  at  one  time,  then 
skirting  the  precipice  at  the  foot  of  v/hich  dash 
mad  torrents,  the  scenery  dashing  by  as  if 
enveloped  in  a fog.  A stone  may  have  lodged 
on  the  road-bed,  a goat  or  llama  may  be  strol- 
ling there,  and  should  your  little  car  strike 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  THE  ANDES 
One  of  the  many  tunnels  may  be  seen  at  the  left 


2518 


TIIK  HIGHEST  OF 


A EE  K Al  IH<()A  l)S 


WITHIN  THE  MOUNTAINS 


Looking  out  from  one  tunnel  into  the  open,  and  through  a tunnel 
beyond  into  the  farther  open  air 


sucli  an  ohstniction  it  must,  l.c  .ItTailcI  am! 
pcrcliaiu'c  roll(*(l  down  some  al»y.ss. 

I'rom  ()rt)}a,  tlu*  lEasttnai  terminal  <.f  tin 
road,  one  continues  his  travels  nu  mule  Itat  k 
the  only  nu'thod  of  t rans|)ortati(>n.  Sonit 
eighty  miles  from  here  and  some  four  thou  sand 
feet  higher  uj)  in  the  world  are  the  famou: 
('erro  de  Easeo  mines,  the  highest  minine 
establishment  on  the  globe,  and  where  are 
the  very  headwaters  of  the  mighty  Amaztm. 
Coneessions  have  been  grantetl  to  conEnue 
the  railroad  from  Oroya  to  the  Easeo  rt  ..pons 
and  surveys  have  been  made. 

The  object  in  building  the  Oroya  road  was 
to  carry  the  tratfic  from  the  eastcTii  sl(')j)es  (){ 
the  4:\ndcs  to  the  sea  coasts,  as  w'cll  as  immense 
f|uantities  of  various  ores  from  different  jioints 
along  the  line.  The  road  is  of  regulation 
broad  gauge  and  from  the  sea  coast  to  the 
summit  an  even  four-per-cent,  grade;  the 
fuel  used  is  jjetroleum. 

Certainly  the  Oroya  Railroad  is  a moving 
panorama  of  the  combined  wonders  of  nature 
and  remarkable  engineering. 


THE  RAILWAYS'  FIGHT  FOR 
EXISTENCE 

WHAT  WILL  THE  ROYAL  COMMISSION  REVEAL? — INFLUENCE  OF  LABOUR 
UPON  FREIGHT  RATES— POOLING  INSTEAD  OF  FIGHTING — GRADES  AND 
THEIR  INFLUENCE  UPON  TRANSPORTATION  CHARGES — OVERHAULING 
THE  WORLD’S  RAILWAYS— REVIVING  AN  OLD  IDEA — HAS  ELECTRICITY 
FAILEDP-SEARCHFOR  A NEW  LOCOMOTIVE— WHAT  THE  SHAREHOLDERS 

GET 

By  FREDERICK  A;  TALBOT 


IT  was  not  surprising  that  the  ap- 
pointment of  a Commission  for 
the  investigation  of  the  ways  and 
means  of  the  working  of  our 
railways  should  be  hailed  with  enthusiasm 
by  those  to  whom  private  ownership  is 
anathema.  The  coming  of  nationalisa- 
tion was  their  immediate  interpretation 
of  the  event.  Their  exuberant  satis- 
faction brought  about  the  usual  stampede 
among  investors,  though  in  a somewhat 
milder  form  than  had  been  anticipated, 
and  the  Stock  Exchange  soon  recovered 
its  equilibrium. 

But  the  advocates  of  nationalisation 
‘\vere  not  alone  in  welcoming  the  announce- 
ment. There  is  another  group,  whose 
unostentatious  work  is  the  object  of 
malign  attack,  and  who  never  can  do 
anything  right.  This  party  is  composed 
of  those  who  have  to  keep  the  railways 
of  the  world  going  ; who  have  to  struggle 
to  hold  their  respective  enterprises  above 
water  ; and  who  leave  no  stone  unturned 
to  keep  the  profit  and  loss  account  so 
balanced  that  the  investor  receives  some- 
thing tangible  for  the  use  of  his  money. 

A little  while  ago  two  railway  magnates 
who  are  known  the  whole  world  over 
chanced  to  meet  at  their  club.  Both  are 
railway  organisers ; both  toil  prodi- 
giously to  justify  the  conhdence  of 
employees  and  shareholders  ; and  both 
as  a rule  work  sixteen  hours  a day.  It 
was  but  natural  that  they  should  talk 
over  matters  which  concerned  their  welfare 
so  vitally. 

“ How  do  you  find  things  ? ’’  asked 
A . 

“ Just  about  as  much  as  I can  manage,” 

retorted  B . “ By  paring  here  and 

trimming  there  it  is  just  possible  to  main« 


tain  the  appearance  of  booming  prosperity. 
And  you  ? ” 

“ A pretty  stiff  struggle  to  keep  above 
water.  It  is  merely  a question  of  scraping 
throughout  the  twenty- four  hours  in 
order  to  get  any  net  revenue  at  all.” 

And  this  is  the  undoubted  state  of 
affairs  throughout  the  railway  world  of 
to-day.  On  all  sides  improvements  are 
being  kept  down  ; new  construction  is 
reduced  to'  the  minimum — in  fact  little 
but  a mark-time  attitude  is  being  main- 
tained. The  railway  governing  forces 
to  whom  the  investor  looks  for  an  ade- 
quate return  upon  his  capital  is  being 
too  heavily  assailed  to  run  any  risks. 
On  the  one  hand  labour  is  insisting  that 
it  should  receive  higher  wages,  and  as 
an  inevitable  corollary  the  cost  of  raw 
materials  for  the  railways’  needs  is  upon 
the  increase.  On  the  other  hand,  shippers 
and  the  public  are  fighting  to  secure 
cheaper  transportation. 

Between  these  two  conflicting  forces 
the  railway  is  in  danger  of  falling  to  the 
ground.  At  the  present  moment  the 
railway  director,  while  admitting  that 
the  demands  of  labour  should  receive 
due  acknowledgment,  maintains  that 
this  cannot  be  done  without  increasing 
rates,  but  when  this  proposal  for  satis- 
fying the  workmen  is  raised  the  opposition 
of  the  trading  community  is  revealed 
in  no  uncertain  manner,  and  probably, 
taken^all  round,  is  a far  more  powerful 
antagonist  to  fear  than  the  unions. 

For  this  reason  the  railway  operating 
departments  are  rather  amicably  dis- 
posed towards  the  Commission,  t or  the 
first  time  they  will  be  able  to  present 
their  side  of  the  case  in  a graphic  straight- 
forward manner : will  be  able  to  de- 


200 


THE  RAILWAYS’  FICKT  FOR  EX  I STIC  NT  E 


monstrate  the  anomalies  under  which 
they  suiter  : will  be  able  to  set  out  their 
recommendations  for  adjusting  the  situa- 
tion, which,  being  the  fruits  of  practical 
experience,  are  certain  to  demand  the 
closest  attention  and  respect. 


Nationalisation  no  Panacea 
Then,  possibly,  it  will  be  shown  that 
such  a drastic  step  as  nationalisation  is 
not  going  to  be  the  panacea  for  all  ills 
a.ttending  railway  transportation.  The 
State  could  no  more  afford  to  run  the 
railways  of  the  country  at  a loss  than 
can  private  enterprise,  while  it  must  not 
be  overlooked  that  officialdom,  being 
part  and  parcel  of  any  government  under- 
taking, the  cost  of  running  the  roads  is 
certain  to  rise,  and  the  shipper  will  be 
called  upon  to  make  good  the  deficiency. 

At  the  present  moment  a titanic 
struggle  occupies  the  railways  of  the 
world  in  the  fight  for  traffic.  This  struggle 
has  assumed  a new  aspect  during  the 
past  two  decades.  In  the  early  days 
competition  took  the  form  of  rate  wars, 
physical  and  legal  opposition,  indis- 
criminate running  of  trains,  conflicting 
lines,  and  foolhardy  attempts  to  divide 
traffic  which  in  itself  was  inadequate  to 
support  one  road.  Such  a condition 
of  things  was  unavoidable. 

Financiers  sought  the  control  of  this 
and  that  line,  dreamed  big  dreams  of 
monopolistic  systems,  made  the  roads 
they  had  acquired  the  sport  of  bulls  and 
bears,  squeezed  a line  until  it  could  not 
yield  another  penny  and  then  threw  it 
away,  in  fact  spared  no  effort  to  secure 
a victory  over  a rival.  When  the  railway 
magnates  fell  out  the  masses  came  into 
tlieir  own.  Freight  was  handled  at 
absurdly  low  rates  merely  to  bulk  the 
ton-miles,  while  passengers  were  carried 
lor  fares  erpially  low  to  prevent  trains 
travelling  to  and  fro  empty.  In  the 
United  States  this  peculiar  warfare  was 
waged  upon  a huge  scale  for  many  years, 
and  at  times  it  became  possible  to  make 
tlie  journey  between  the  Atlantic  and 
tlie  I'acilic  lor  an  outlay  of  a few  shillings 
m-.tead  ol  pounds. 

What  Pooling  is  Doing 

Hut  those  strenuous  days  have  dis- 
•ippisii ('(1  fnr  ev'T.  Inter-competition  has 


given  vvay  to  pooling,  so  that  rates  can 
be  maintained  ; train  .services  superfluous 
and  unremunerative  are  eliminated  ; and 
the  train-miles  have  been  reduced  to 
the  minimum.  At  competitive  points, 
where  formerly  remarkable  activity 
prevailed,  stations  have  been  closed, 
staffs  decreased,  and  in  many  instances 
miles  of  line  practically  abandoned.  Jn 
this  manner  far-reaching  economies  have 
been  effected. 

Pooling  of  traffic  is  the  logical  retort 
to  the  aggressive  assaults  of  labour  and 
traders.  It  is  tending  to  weld  together 
the  whole  network  of  steel  in  any  country. 
So  far  as  Great  Britain  is  concerned  its 
railways  are  in  a condition  similar  to 
that  which  would  prevail  were  nation- 
alisation in  operation.  There  is  no  sign 
of  any  keen  competition  for  business. 
In  a town  or  city  served,  say,  by  three 
roads  one  will  observe  that  traffic  is 
collected  and  delivered  by  the  vans  of 
either  line.  If  goods  are  to  be  shipped 
or  a passenger  seeks  a ticket  they  do  not 
fall  over  one  another  in  the  effort  to 
secure  ^ the  business.  It  is  immaterial 
by  which  road  the  traffic  is  dispatched 
for  the  simple  reason  that  the  revenue 
is  divided  between  them.  By  following 
this  practice  the  three  companies  are 
able  to  provide  the  centre  in  question 
with  just  sufficient  train  services  for  its 
necessities.  Not  a single  train  noi  a 
goods  waggon  more  than  is  requisite  is 
run. 

Concurrently  with  this  modern  method 
of  working  the  railway  a further  de- 
velopment may  be  noted.  Countries  are 
becoming  divided  into  spheres  of  activity, 
so  that  a railway  is  enabled  to  exploit 
what  it  regards  as  its  own  preserves  in 
peace  and  quietness,  and  without  having 
its  secuiity  imperilled  by  the  invasion 
of  a competing  line.  This  arrangement 
may,  or  may  not,  react  detrimentally 
upon  the  community  living  in  the  par- 
ticular town  or  city,  but  the  latter  has 
no  redress.  The  residents  and  com- 
mercial interests  may  deplore  the  absence 
of  a competing  road,  and  argue  that  if 
they  were  provided  with  such  they 
would  be  certain  to  derive  benelits,  but 
experience  would  speedily  reveal  the 
fact  that  in  such  a case  the  benefits  would 
I>c  mor('  imaginary  than  real. 


THE  RAILWAYS’  FIGHT  FOR  EXISTENCE 


201 


Sti'uggle  to  Reduce  Costs 

Despite  this  modern  development  of 
railway  working,  however,  it  must  be 
not  be  concluded  that  the  railways  are 
inactive.  Far  from  it.  Other  issues  of 
greater  significance  have  arisen,  which 
are  taxing  the  abilities  of  the  respective 
governing  forces  far  more  acutely.  This 
is  the  reduction  of  the  cost  of  transporting 
both  passenger  and  freight.  It  affects 
the  last  named  most  particularly  be- 
cause it  constitutes  the  bulk  of  a rail- 
way’s revenue.  In  railway  parlance  the 
problem  is  “ How  to  reduce  the  train- 
miles,  and  increase  the  ton-miles  as  well 
as  augmenting  the  profit  per  ton-mile  ? ” 

In  facing  this  proposition  the  railways 
are  confronted  with  severe  limitations. 
There  is  the  gauge  of  the  track  as  well 
as  the  gauge  of  bridges  and  tunnels  to 
be  taken  into  consideration,  while  grades 
and  curvature  also  influence  the  situation 
very  appreciably.  The  first  two  are 
practically  unalterable  : the  last-named 
are  capable  of  adjustment  with  a reason- 
able outlay,  although  the  expenditure  of 
millions  may  be  entailed.  Improvements 
in  this  latter  connection  affect  matters 
of  maintenance  charges  both  of  track 
and  stock,  so  that  the  cutting  out  of  a 
hill  or  the  straightening  of  a kink,  while 
expensive,  may  show  sufficient  saving  in 
wear  and  tear  to  defray  a goodly  pro- 
portion of  the  interest  upon  the  capital 
expenditure. 

It  will  be  remembered,  when  Harriman 
started  his  colossal  campaign  of  railway 
aggrandisement,  that  he  spoke  seriously 
of  changing  the  gauge  of  the  roads  brought 
under  his  control.  For  once  the  astute 
railway  financier  ventured  an  opinion 
before  he  had  taken  technical  counsel. 
When  his  engineers,  who  were  told  to 
prepare  estimates  upon  the  scheme  with- 
out delay,  submitted  their  report,  the 
man  of  millions  was  staggered. 

He  had  regarded  the  situation  merely 
from  his  own  point  of  view.  He  re- 
cognised that  it  meant  the  reconstruction 
of  the  whole  of  the  roads  he  had  secured, 
but  he  overlooked  the  fact  that  if  a con- 
version were  effected  he  would  become 
isolated.  Interchange  of  traffic  would 
become  impossible,  and,  consequently, 
nothing  but  local  business  ever  would 


be  possible.  Converting  his  system  to 
the  broad  gauge  was  a very  simple  matter, 
but  it  did  not  stop  at  that.  All  the 
railways  upon  the  North  American  con- 
tinent, from  Mexico  to  Canada,  would 
have  to  be  transformed,  and  as  no  other 
railway  was  prepared  to  undertake  such 
a revolutionary  enterprise,  the  cost  of 
which  would  be  fabulous,  the  change  of 
gauge  project  was  dropped  like  a hot  coal. 

Rebuilding  a Transcontinental 

Determined  to  secure  improved  financial 
returns  from  the  operation  of  his  lines 
by  hook  or  by  crook,  Flarrinian  con- 
ceived another  equally  startling  project. 
The  Union  and  Central  Pacific  system 
had  been  built  in  a hurry,  and  conse- 
quently was  not  only  indifferently  laid 
but  was  a maze  of  twists  and  turns,  and 
ran  up  and  down  like  a gigantic  switch- 
back.  He  would  straighten  the  bends 
and  flatten  the  grades.  This  involved 
virtual  reconstruction,  and  here  again, 
although  he  was  warned  that  millions 
would  be  necessary  to  complete  his 
scheme,  he  merely  told  the  engineers  to 
“ Go  ahead  ! ” 

The  “ first  transcontinental  ” was 
pulled  to  pieces  from  end  to  end.  It 
was  a patchwork  job,  and  although 
apparently  straightforward  it  bristled 
with  peculiar  difficulties. 

In  order  to  overcome  Sherman  Hill 
a stable  of  big  locomotives  had  to  be 
maintained  at  the  bottom  of  the  hump 
and  were  drawn  out  in  threes,  fours,  and 
even  fives,  to  give  a passing  train  the 
necessary  boost  over  the  bank.  That 
stable  of  pushers  was  to  be  wiped  out 
at  all  hazards.  The  summit  level  was 
lowered,  and  overcome  by  a long  tunnel. 
Lofty  embankments  were  piled  up  and 
deep  cuttings  dug  to  maintain  the  level 
straight  line  which  he  demanded. 

Then  he  eliminated  the  wide  and 
difficult  detour  around  the  north  end  of 
Salt  Lake,  by  cutting  straight  across  this 
inland  sea  with  a trestle  and  earthen 
embankment  which  alone  cost  over 
£1,000,000.  Wherever  an  improvement 
between  Salt  Lake  and  the  Pacific  Coast 
was  possible  and  remunerative  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  sanction  it,  even  if  the  re- 
construction was  only  a matter  of  two 
or  three  hundred  yards 


202 


THE  RAILWAYS’  FIGHT  FOR  EXTSTENTE 


By  the  time  lie  liad  straightened  out 
the  first  transcontinental  across  North 
America  he  had  clipped  off  some  300 
miles  or  so  in  distance,  had  pulled  down 
climbs  by  hundreds  of  feet,  and  had 
spent  well  over  £10,000,000.  So  satis- 
fied was  he  with  this  achievement  and 
its  results  that  he  proposed  to  overcome 
the  most  serious  handicap  to  his  railway — 
the  tedious  crawl  over  the  Sierras.  He 
proposed  to  tunnel  the  range,  although 
it  involved  a work  comparable  with  that 
of  the  sub- Alpine  tubes.  But  this  last 
bold  project  became  shelved  upon  his 
death,  and  although  it  has  been  re- 
suscitated upon  one  or  two  occasions 
since,  there  is  a pardonable  hesitancy 
upon  the  part  of  the  financial  element 
to  back  the  engineers  in  such  a task. 

The  Victims  of  Grades 
Another  railroad  which  has  undergone 
considerable  overhaul  is  the  Pennsylvania 
system.  When  railways  were  first  built 
upon  the  American  continent  the  en- 
gineers apparently  endeavoured  to  create 
their  own  standard  of  construction,  and 
accordingly  never  paused  to  contemplate 
the  enormous  locomotive  effort  that 
would  be  required  to  get  over  the  grades. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  the  first  British 
roads  were  laid  the  engineers  aimed  at 
as  straight  and  as  level  a line  as  possible. 
This  was  due  to  the  general  belief  that 
a locomotive  would  be  unable  to  ascend 
a bank  stiffer  than  one  in  about  three 
hundred  by  adhesion.  It  was  fortunate 
for  the  present  generation  that  such  a 
theory  prevailed  because  it  has  saved 
many  millions  in  overhaul. 

(kjnsequently,  on  the  Pennsylvania 
system,  grades  of  one  in  thirty-three 
were  not  uncommon,  especially  among 
the  mountains.  Later  knowledge  recog- 
nising the  brake  such  climbs  imposed 
uj)on  cheap  movement  decided  upon 
their  removal,  together  with  an  im- 
proved standard  of  permanent  way,  the 
lattcT  indeed  being  based  upon  the  best 
I>ri1ish  j)racti(:e.  Re-alignment  was 
prnetised  freely  among  the  mountains, 
Jind  in  this  manner  it  was  ]x)ssible  to 
rednee  llie  maximum  gradient  upon  the 
trnnk  road  I0  one  in  fifty-seven.  By 
such  work  not  only  were  double  and 
triple  heading  abolished  in  connection 


with  the  passenger  expresses,  but  it 
became  possible  to  increase  freight  loads 
per  train  under  one  locomotive  from 
400  to  600  per  cent. 

The  Canadian  Pacific,  having  been 
built  according  to  the  constructional 
standards  which  prevailed  when  the 
first  American  transcontinental  was  con- 
structed, has  some  very  severe  pulls 
against  the  collar  upon  its  mountain 
reaches,  where  the  grades  run  up  to 
105  feet  per  mile.  When  it  was  in  sole 
possession  of  the  territory  served,  the 
existence  of  such  banks,  and  especially 
that  of  237 f feet  per  mile  between  Hector 
and  Field,  did  not  affect  the  issue  very 
vitally,  although  in  the  last  named 
instance,  four  and  five  engines  had  to  be 
attached  to  a train  to  lift  it  over  the 
ever-rising  hump. 

But  when  its  supremacy  was  challenged 
by  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  with  its 
maximum  grade  of  twenty-one  feet  per 
mile  between  the  two  oceans,  and  by 
the  Canadian  Northern  which  laid  down 
a rise  of  52.8  feet  per  mile  as  its  maximum, 
overhauling  had  to  be  undertaken  boldly 
and  without  delay.  The  first  step  was 
the  abolition  of  the  “ Big  Hill  ” at  a cost 
of  £250,000,  and  this  is  being  followed 
by  the  driving  of  a five-mile  tunnel 
through  the  base  of  the  Selkirks,  instead 
of  toiling  over  their  ragged  crests,  which 
work  will  entail  an  expenditure  of  some 
£2,000,000. 

Overhauling  the  World^s  Railways 

In  Mexico  also  extensive  overhauling 
has  been  carried  out  to  bring  about  a 
reduction  in  train-miles  and  an  increased 
ton-mileage.  Many  of  the  grades  upon 
the  lines,  owing  to  the  mountainous 
character  of  the  country,  were  so  steep 
as  to  demand  the  utilisation  of  special 
locomotives  such  as  the  Fairlie  duplex. 
On  the  English-owned  Mexican  railway 
the  growth  of  traffic  and  threatened 
filching  of  business  by  the  national 
system  driving  a competitive  line  to  the 
Atlantic  coastal  ports,  the  supply  of  more 
powerful  engines  became  imperative  for 
mountain  service,  and  to-day  these  rank 
as  the  largest  and  most  powerful  Fairlie 
engines  in  service.  So  far  as  the  national 
system  is  concerned  it  has  been  spending 
millions  freely  in  the  struggle  to  bring 


THE  RAILWAYS’  FIGHT  FOR  EXISTENCE 


203 


its  roads  into  line  with  American  standards, 
to  enable  the  mammoth  Mallet  articulated 
freight  locomotives,  which  have  been 
introduced,  to  haul  trains  three  and  four 
times  the  length  of  what  formerly  was 
possible. 

While  overhauling  and  rebuilding  per- 
haps are  most  powerfully  expressed  upon 
the  North  American  continent  in  the 
struggle  to  make  ends  meet,  it  is  by  no 
means  confined  thereto.  Several  Euro- 
pean countries  are  engaged  in  a similar 
struggle.  Possibly  there  is  no  country 
where  railway  traffic  assumes  such  a 
peculiar  interest  as  in  Switzerland.  Local 
business  is  a trifling  contribution  to  the 
railway  finances  of  the  state.  It  is  the 
through  transport  of  the  produce  of  other 
countries  which  has  to  be  watched  and 
nursed. 

When  the  Gothard  tunnel  was  com- 
pleted it  gave  a new  highway  between 
the  North  Sea  and  the  Adriatic,  and 
offered  spirited  competition  to  the 
business  flowing  by  way  of  the  Cenis 
tunnel.  But  to-day  the  Gothard  route 
is  the  most  exacting  and  expensive  to 
operate  of  all  the  through  steel  highways 
in  the  country,  owing  to  the  heavy  grades 
and  sharp  curves  which  are  encountered 
between  Goschenen  and  Biasca.  Double 
heading  is  practised,  powerful  loco- 
motives expressly  designed  for  the  moun- 
tain section  being  employed  to  work 
the  train  over  the  famous  Pass  and 
through  the  tunnei.  On  the  Simplon 
and  Loetschberg  electric  working  has 
been  adopted  with  highly  favourable 
results  from  the  financial  point  of  view, 
and  so  soon  as  practicable,  the  Gothard 
route  will  be  adapted  to  this  form  of 
traction. 

Reviving  an  Old  Idea 

The  completion  of  the  Cenis  tunnel 
gave  the  French  an  entry  into  Italy, 
but  here  again  the  grades  have  proved 
a severe  stumbling-block  to  economical 
working.  To-day  the  Cenis  tunnel  and 
its  line  is  the  limit  of  the  route’s  capacity. 
When  this  particular  work  was  under 
way  the  necessity  arose  of  accelerating 
the  overland  Brindisi  mails,  which  were 
transported  by  coaches  and  other  primi- 
tive facilities  across  the  Alps. 

An  English  engineer,  named  Fell,  per- 


fected a new  mountain  railway  system 
the  feature  of  which  was  a third  rail, 
laid  mid-way  between  the  ordinary  carry- 
ing rails,  and  with  which  horizontal 
wheels,  mounted  upon  the  locomotive, 
engaged.  This  system  was  born  before 
the  modern  rack  rail,  and  was  designed 
for  service  upon  banks  ranging  from 
I in  17J  to  that  capable  of  operation  by 
ordinary  adhesion.  The  line  was  laid 
over  the  Cenis  Pass,  and  fulfilled  its 
work  with  perfect  success,  but,  according 
to  the  terms  of  the  concession,  had  to  be 
removed  directly  the  Cenis  tunnel  was 
completed,  as  a rival  to  the  costly  tunnel 
was  not  entertained  favourably  by  either 
of  the  parties  who  had  financed  the 
latter  enterprise. 

For  years  little  has  been  heard  of  the 
Fell  centre  rail  system,  although  its 
virtues  always  have  been  appreciated  by 
engineers.  But  now  that  the  Alpine 
tunnelling  fever  has  died  down  owing 
to  the  cost  of  such  works  and  the  slender 
possibility  of  their  showing  adequate 
profit  from  operation,  the  Fell  system 
has  been  revived.  At  the  moment  a new 
trans-Alpine  route  is  being  discussed, 
and  it  is  proposed  to  go  over  instead  of 
through  the  mountains  by  the  Fell 
railway,  selecting  a favourable  Pass  and 
laying  down  a first-class  trunk  road  for 
the  engines  of  this  type. 

Not  only  is  such  a railway  immeasurably 
cheaper  than  tunnelling,  but  it  is  easier 
to  maintain,  and  there  is  not  such  a 
heavy  strain  upon  the  railway  in  the 
defraying  of  the  interest  upon  the  capital 
outlay.  At  either  end  of  the  third-rail 
system  locomotives  must  be  changed, 
but  this  operation  is  not  provocative  of 
any  more  delay  than  is  experienced  at 
either  end  of  the  Simplon  line,  where  the 
change  from  electric  to  steam  traction 
is  effected.  Another  advantage  is  the 
possibility  of  being  able  to  pass  more 
traffic  over  a surface  than  through  a 
subterranean  line.  Travelling  speeds  are 
about  the  same,  but,  even  if  the  Fell  line 
does  involve  comparative  deceleration, 
which  it  does  not,  there  is  compensating 
advantage  of  lower  working  costs. 

Some  years  ago,  when  the  American 
railway  magnates  were  at  close  grips, 
and  were  striving  might  and  main  to 
secure  an  advantage,  no  matter  how 


1 


THE  RAILWAYS'  FIGHT  FOR  EXISTENCE 


204 

trivial,  over  one  another,  electric  opera- 
tion was  held  to  be  the  one  means  whereby 
the  difference  between  profit  and  loss 
in  working  might  be  widened  to  the 
advantage  of  the  former.  A mild  boom 
set  in  and  in  due  course  spread  to  Europe. 
But  the  electrification  of  the  trunk  roads 
of  the  world  has  not  made  very  dis- 
tinctive progress. 

The  wholesale  conversion  which  it 
was  stated  was  about  to  take  place  has 
failed  to  mature.  Electrification  has 
been  confined  almost  exclusively  to  long 
tunnels  and  congested  suburban  traffic. 
For  long-distance  business  steam  still 
reigns  supreme,  and  the  present  trend 
of  opinion  is  that  it  will  not  be  displaced, 
at  least  not  by  electricity,  for  many  years 
to  come — if  ever.  Moreover,  the  majority 
of  the  lines  have  just  as  much  as  they 
can  bear  at  the  present  moment  in  the 
way  of  financial  strain,  and  evince  no 
desire  to  inflate  their  capitalisation  ac- 
count any  further  by  embracing  electric 
traction.  Many  ambitious  schemes  have 
been  drawn  up,  but  there  is  no  indica- 
tion of  their  proceeding  beyondjthe 
paper  stage. 

Search  for  a New  Locomotive 

In  many  quarters  it  is  maintained  that 
the  true  solution  of  this  perplexing  issue 
lies  not  in  electricity,  but  in  some  other 
form  of  self-contained  tractive  unit. 
Interesting  experiments  of  a varied 
character  are  being  made  in  this  field. 
During  the  past  two  or  three  years  many 
interesting  departures  from  orthodox 
locomotive  practice  have  been  made 
experimentally. 

There  was  the  turbo-locomotive  which 
indicated  a possible  phase  of  development. 
This  year  the  Diesel  locomotive  has  made 
its  appearance  and  is  being  tested  in 
Switzerland,  but  so  far  this  ingenious 
effort  lias  not  been  received  with  very 
marked  enthusiasm,  inasmuch  as  there 
arc  several  problems,  incidental  to  the 
system,  which  remain  to  be  solved. 

During  the  next  few  months  an  internal 
combustion  locomotive  is  due  to  emerge 
from  an  Ji.nglish  locomotive  constructional 
house,  and  its  arrival  is  being  awaited 
with  keen  anticipation,  because  in  the 
^‘vent  of  success  it  ])osscsses  illimitable 
possibilities  for  a])j)lication  where  vast 


reaches  of  unproductive  country  have 
to  be  traversed  and  where  fuel  is  neces- 
sarily somewhat  costly. 

The  investigations  of  the  commission 
are  certain  to  be  productive  of  beneficial 
results.  Abstruse  problems  in  connection 
with  railway  working  will  be  unravelled 
and  the  public,  which  is  somewhat 
mystified  by  the  ways  and  means  of  our 
railways,  will  realise  that  there  is  nothing 
mysterious  whatever.  The  complexity 
of  freight  rates  will  be  simplified  so  as 
to  be  comprehensible,  and  the  British 
farmer  will  learn  why  perishable  articles 
grown  in  the  South  of  France  can  be 
dumped  into  Covent  Garden  at  a less 
rate  than  home-grown  produce.  There 
was  never  a trader  yet  who  did  not  quarrel 
with  freight  rates  ; even  if  his  goods  were 
carried  free  he  would  still  find  a cause 
for  complaint. 

Unfortunately  it  has  become  the  prac- 
tice of  the  community,  not  only  of  these 
islands,  but  of  every  other  country,  to 
assail  the  railways.  But  is  this  attitude 
justifiable  ? With  the  exception  of  a 
few  systems  the  shareholder  receives 
less  return  upon  his  money  than  if  he 
had  invested  it  in  Consols,  and  the  value 
of  his  security  shows  quite  as  pronounced 
a shrinkage.  Undoubtedly  there  are  con- 
siderable dead  timber  and  watered  stocks 
in  the  capital  of  every  system.  If  this 
were  cut  away — the  speculative  fever 
having  expended  itself  so  far  as  railways 
are  concerned  — enormous  economies 
might  be  effected,  but  at  the  same  time 
the  theory  that  “ rates  should  be  decreased 
coincidentally  with  an  increase  in  the 
cost  of  operation  " is  opposed  to  all  the 
ethics  of  rational  commerce. 

In  the  United  States,  according  to  the 
latest  compiled  statistics,  the  average 
return  upon  the  capital  invested  in 
railways  is  only  3J  per  cent.,  and  it  is  a 
moot  point  whether  the  return  in  these 
islands  from  the  same  class  of  investment 
is  any  higher.  The  expense  of  running 
our  railways  has  increased  by  leaps  and 
bounds  during  the  past  twenty  years. 
On  some  roads,  out  of  every  £1  earned 
no  less  than  14s.  have  to  be  disbursed 
in  the  form  of  working  expenses,  so  that, 
contrary  to  the  general  opinion,  the 
shareholder  does  not  appropriate  the 
lion's  share  of  a railway’s  revenue. 


THE  RAILWAYS'  FIGHT  FOR  EXISTENCE 


THE  GREAT  " CUT-OFF  ” ON  SALT  LAKE,  UTAH 

Where  Harriman  spent  ;^i, 000,000  to  save  mileage  on  the  Union  Pacific 


COSTLY  RAILWAY  OPERATION — A CLIMB  OF  TWO  MILES  ABOVE  SEA  LEVEL 
The  Denver  and  Rio  Grande,  in  order  to  overcome  the  Rockies,  has  to  climb  Marshall  Pass, 

the  great  continental  divide 


205 


Q2 


XXIII 


Tint  \<A\\A\A\^’  in  (ill  T in)i>:  it  x i s'r  it  x ( p: 


A I.AN(t\SlIIKE-HU II.T  “ FAIKI.IK  LOCO  ” I-OK  HEAVY  ('.RADIUS  OX  THE  MICXICAN  RAIIAVAV 


TO-DAY  AND  YESTERDAY — A SANTA  FE  RAILWAY  TRAIN 


Til  1C  I'AIMOUS  lIORSICSIlOIC  CURVE 


THE  RAILWAYS’  FIGHT  FOR  EXISTENCE 


207 


TIM':  KA  II.  WAVS’  I' I (.in  I' OK  I',  x I s i i:  X < !•; 


A TEMPORARY  SWITCHBACK  l.IXE 

I-)uilt  at  a cost  of  ^100,000,  while  the  Cascade 
Tunnel  was^being  built 


COSTLY  CONSTRIXTIOX 
A series  of  tunnels  on  the  Moffat  Line  in 
the  Rockies 


I'.i  II  hi\(.  A Ni'.w  SNOW  siif;i)  ON  1111-:  (;ki:at  nokthi:kn  railway 

ll;dl  ;i  iiiilc  ol  I li is  < oiu.I  i iH  1 ion  i 11  Icno-coiu  rel(“  costs 00,000 


208 


Railroad^  Canal ^ and  Steamboat  Statistics. 


501 


THE  VICTORIA  RAILWAY  BRIDGE  AT  MONTREAL. 

This  stupendous  enterprise,  as  we  learn  from  the  State  of  Maine,  is  now  in  active 
progress,  and  unless  unforeseen  circumstances  should  occur,  it  is  intended  that  the 
first  train  of  tlie  Grand  Trunk  Railway  Company  shall  go  through  the  Victoria  Bridge 
in  the  summer  of  185S. 

For  the  following  description  of  what  has  been  not  inappropriately  designated  the 
greatest  work  of  modern  times,  we  are  indebted  to  John  A.  Poor,  Esq.,  the  editor  of 
the  State  of  Maine,  and  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  efficient  agents  in  bringing  about 
the  “annexation”  of  Canada  to  the  United  States  by  means  of  the  Atlantic  and  St. 
Lawrence  Railroad.  This  account  was  prepared  by  Sir  C.  P.  Rooney,  from  data  fur- 
nished by  Mr.  A.  M.  Ross,  Chief  Engineer  of  this  great  work,  and  may  be  relied  upon 
as  entirely  accurate  in  all  its  details ; — 

As  is  already  well  known,  the  commercial  reason  given  for  the  construction  of  the 
Victoria  Bridge,  is  the  necessity  of  bringing  in  the  exhaustless  products  of  Canada 
West,  and  of  tlie  Western  States  of  the  Union — such  as  Michigan,  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  etc. — without  break  of  gauge  or  of  bulk,  from  the  extreme 
Western  point  of  British  North  America  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  promoters  of 
the  undertaking  allege  that,  by  means  of  the  bridge,  they  will  be  able  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  this  traffic  more  cheaply  and  expeditiously  than  by  any  other  exist- 
ing route,  whether  of  rail  or  of  water ; and  they  must  be  doubtless  strong  in  the 
faith,  as  its  cost  is  to  be  about  seven  millions  of  dollars,  or  about  one-seventh  of  the 
total  expense  of  building  the  1,112  miles  comprising  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  of 
Canada. 

The  bridge  is  to  be  tubular,  on  the  plan  of  the  celebrated  Britannia  Bridge  over 
the  Menai  Straits,  in  North  Wales.  It  will  consist  of  25  spans  or  spaces  for  naviga- 
tion between  the  24  piers,  (exclusive  of  two  abutments,)  for  the  support  of  the  tubes. 
The  center  span  will  be  380  feet  wide,  and  each  of  the  other  spans  will  be  242  feet 
wide.  The  width  of  each  of  the  piers  next  to  the  abutments  will  be  15  feet,  and  the 
width  of  those  approaching  the  two  center  piers  will  be  gradually  increased,  so  that 
these  two  piers  will  each  be  18  feet  wide,  or  3 feet  more  than  those  next  the  abut- 
ments. Each  abutment  is  to  be  242  feet  long  and  90  feet  wide,  and  from  the  north 
shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  north  abutment  there  will  be  a solid  stone  embank- 
ment, (faced  in  rough  masonry  towards  the  current,)  1,200  feet  in  length.  The  stone 
embankment  leading  from  the  south  shore  of  the  river  to  the  south  abutment,  will  be 
600  feet  long.  The  length  of  the  bridge,  from  abutment  to  abutment,  will  be  8,000 
feet,  and  its  total  length  from  river  bank  to  river  bank  will  be  10,284  feet,  or  176  feet 
less  than  two  English  miles. 

The  clear  distance  between  the  ordinary  summer  level  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
the  under  surface  of  the  center  tube  is  to  be  60  feet,  and  the  hight  diminishes  towards 
either  side,  with  a grade  at  the  rate  of  I in  130,  or  40  feet  in  the  mile,  so  that  at  the 
outer  or  river  edge  of  each  abutment  the  hight  is  36  feet  above  the  summer  level. 
The  summer  depth  of  the  water  in  the  St.  Lawrence  varies  from  14  feet  about  the 
center  to  4 feet  towards  the  banks,  and  the  current  runs,  at  the  site  of  the  bridge,  at 
a rate  varying  from  7 to  10  miles  an  hour. 

Each  of  the  tubes  will  be  19  feet  in  hight  at  the  end,  whence  they  will  gradually 
increase  to  22  feet  6 inches  in  the  center.  The  width  of  each  tube  will  be  16  feet,  or 
9 feet  6 inches  wider  than  the  rail  track.  The  total  weight  of  iron  in  the  tubes  will 
be  10,400  tons,  and  they  will  be  bound  and  riveted  together  precisely  in  the  same 
manner  and  with  similar  machinery  to  that  employed  in  the  Britannia  Bridge.  The 
principal  part  of  the  stone  used  in  the  construction  of  the  piers  and  abutments  is  a 
dense,  blue  limestone,  found  at  Pointe  Claire,  on  the  Ottawa  River,  about  18  miles 
above  Montreal,  about  8 above  the  confluence  of  that  river  with  the  St.  Lawrence.  A 
large  village  has  suddenly  sprung  up  at  the  place,  for  during  the  last  twelve  months 
upwards  of  500  quarry  men,  stone-masons,  and  laborers  have  been  employed  there. 
Every  contrivance  that  could  be  adopted  to  save  manual  labor  has  also  been  applied, 
and  its  extent  will  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  the  machinery  at  the  quarry  and  the 
adjacent  jetty  has — including  the  cost  of  the  jetty — involved  an  outlay  of  $150,000. 
Three  powerful  steam-tugs  and  35  barges,  each  capable  of  carrying  200  tons  of  stone, 
have  been  specially  built  for  the  work,  at  a cost  of  about  $120,000.  These  are  used 


502 


Railroad^  Canal ^ and  Stenmhoat  Statistic.!^. 


for  tlie  conveyance  of  (lie  ptone  to  the  piers ; and  by  (lie  enfl  of  September  next,  n 
railway  on  (he  permanent  line  of  the  (trand  Trunk  track  will  be  laid  down  from  the 
quarry — close  to  which  (he  permanent  line  will  pass — to  the  nor(h  shore  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  so  as  to  convey  along  it  the  stone  required  for  the  north  embankment  and 
for  the  northern  abutment. 

The  piers  close  to  the  abutments  will  each  contain  about  0,000  tons  of  masonry. 
Scarcely  a block  used  in  the  construction  of  the  piers  wmII  be  less  than  7 tons  weight, 
and  many  of  them,  especially  those  exposed  to  the  force  of  the  current  and  to  the 
breaking  up  of  ice  in  spring,  will  weigh  fully  10  tons  each.  iSs  the  construction  of 
“ Pier  No.  1 ” is  already  several  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river,  (he  jirocess  of  binding 
the  blocks  together  can  now  be  seen  and  apjireciated.  In  addition  to  the  abundant 
use  of  the  best  w'ater  cement,  each  stone  is  clamped  to  its  neighbors  in  several  [ilaces 
by  iron  rivets,  and  the  interstices  between  the  rivets  and  the  blocks  are  filled  up  with 
molten  lead.  If  the  mighty  St.  Lawrence  conquers  these  cond;ined  appliances,  then 
indeed  is  there  an  end  to  all  mechanical  resistances. 

In  consequence  of  the  increased  bight  and  width  of  the  piers  converging  towards 
the  center,  the  weight  of  stone  in  those  that  will  bear  the  center  tube  will  be  about 
8,000  tons  each.  The  total  amount  of  masonry  in  the  ])iers  will  be  27,500,000  cubic 
feet,  wdiich,  at  13^  feet  to  the  ton,  gives  a total  Aveight  of  about  205,000  tons. 

Mr.  Robert  Stephenson  and  Mr.  A.  M.  Ross  are  the  engineers  of  the  bridge,  on  be- 
half of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway.  The  former  gentleman  visited  Canada  last  year, 
and  purposes  returning  again  when  the  works  have  made  further  progress.  The  lat- 
ter is  permanently  located  in  the  province,  not  only  for  the  superintendence  of  the 
bridge,  but  also  as  Engineer-in-chief  of  the  railway  company.  The  contractors  are 
Messrs.  Peto,  Brassey,  Betts  & Jackson,  and  their  representative  in  Canada  for  the 
Victoria  Bridge,  and  for  the  railway  from  Montreal  to  Kingston,  a distance  of  180 
miles,  13  Mr,  James  Hodges,  a gentleman  well  known  in  connection  wdth  some  of  the 
most  important  engineering  wmrks  in  England. 

The  coffer  dams,  (entirely  on  a new  principle  invented  by  Mr.  Hodges,)  for  the 
northern  abutment  and  the  three  first  adjacent  piers,  have  been  some  time  success- 
fully placed.  The  masonry  in  Pier  No.  1,  as  has  already  been  stated,  is  several  feet 
above  the  bed  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  is  commenced  in  the  next  pier,  and  is  ready 
for  a beginning  in  the  abutment.  The  wdiole  of  these  will  be  raised  ten  feet  above 
the  winter  level  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  is  17  feet  above  the  summer  level,  before 
the  ice  sets  in  in  December,  when  all  masonry  work  will  have  to  be  suspended  until 
the  spring  of  1855. 


HOW  RAILROADS  INCREASE  WEALTH. 

Inasmuch  as  at  the  present  time  there  exists  quite  an  outcry  against  some  of  the 
railroad  enterprises  of  the  day,  we  copy  the  following  from  a late  number  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati Railroad  Record  with  the  object  of  showing  the  influence  of  railways,  and  the 
increase  of  capital  and  the  facilities  of  Commerce : — 


Railway  investments  in  Ohio $50,000,000 

Market  value 35,000,000 

Increased  value  of  lands  51,000,000 

Annual  gain  in  transportation  $7,000,000,  which  is  interest  on  100,000,000 
Annual  gain  in  interest  $1,000,000,  wdiich  is  interest  on. 15,000,000 

Aggregate  value $201,000,000 


Deduct  the  original  cost,  and  we  have  a clear  gain  of  capital  to  the  extent  of  161 
millions  of  dollars.  Mr.  Mansfield,  the  editor,  thus  comments; — 

Try  this  estimate  by  any  other  test  that  can  be  applied,  and  it  wdll  be  found  to  be 
within  limits.  Take,  for  examjilc,  the  valuation  of  the  State.  In  three  years  three 
hundred  millions  have  been  added  to  the  assessments  of  the  State,  and  the  assess- 
ments are  under  valuaiion.  d'ake  Cincinnati  as  an  example.  In  five  years  her  Com- 
merce has  doubled.  What  has  done  it?  Her  bank  cajiital  is  constantly  diminishing, 
and  her  rates  of  interest  are  enormous.  What  has  sustained  her  ? But  for  the  ex- 
tension of  her  trade  through  the  interior,  by  railways,  the  tyranny  of  legislation,  and 
the  eijually  bad  municipal  management,  Avould  almost  have  crushed  her.  The  vastly 


Railroad^  Canal^  and  Steamboat  Statistics, 


503 


enlarged  facilities  for  trade,  and  also  of  manufactures,  have  borne  her  triumphant 
through  the  conflict.  Whence,  then,  originates  the  absurd  idea,  that  railways  have 
absorbed  commercial  capital  ? Railways  alone  have  saved  the  commercial  community 
from  bankruptcy.  Whence,  then,  comes  this  cry  ? This  is  it — Railways  as  well  as 
increased  currency  have  immensely  increased  the  business  of  the  country.  Hence, 
more  money  is  required  for  a greatly  enlarged  business.  Then  extravagance,  to  a 
most  foolish  extent,  has  taken  possession  of  the  wealthy  classes,  and  that  demands 
money.  Then  comes  a pressure.  There  is  overtrading,  export  of  specie,  high  rates 
of  interest,  and  some  failures.  Somebody  must  be  blamed.  Who  ? The  most  prom- 
inent, active,'  and  public  body  is  a railway,  and  he  is  charged  with  doing  too  much. 
It  is  the  old  Jack  Cade  cry  of  put  down  the  men  with  the  ink  horns,  because  they  can 
write  ; and  arrest  the  progress  of  railways,  because  they  make  too  much  business ! 
When  you  cease  to  make  railways,  the  goose  that  laid  the  golden  egg  will  be  killed. 

INCREASE  ON  BRITISH  STEAM  AND  SAIL  MARINE, 

The  steam  marine  of  Great  Britain  originated  in  the  year  1814.  In  that  year  two 
steam  vessels  were  built  with  a combined  measurement  of  456  tons.  In  1820  the 
registered  tonnage  of  their  steamships  (excluding  the  colonial)  was  7,243  tons,  vessels 
43.  The  increase  has  since  been  irregular,  showing  in  1850  an  aggregate  of  168,344. 
In  the  same  period  (36  years)  the  merchant  marine  increased  from  2,414,170  tons  to 
3,565,133  tons.  The  increase  at  various  dates  is  shown  as  annexed : — 


REGISTERED  BRITISH  SHIPPING.  STEAM  VESSELS. 


Year. 

Ships. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

1815 

2,447,831 

10 

1,633 

1820 

21,909 

2,439,029 

43 

7,243 

1825 

20,701 

2,328,807 

168 

20,287 

1830 

19,174 

2,201,592 

815 

83,444 

1885 

20,300 

2,360,303 

638 

60,520 

1840 

22,664 

2,768,262 

783 

90,732 

1845. 

8,123,180 

917 

118,782 

1850  

1851  

26  043- 

3,565,133 

3,662,344 

3,759,278 

1,285 

168,344 

1852 

26,086 

• • « 

In  1852,  the  number  of  new  vessels  built  was  only  712,  notwithstanding  the  demand 
for  shipping  for  Australia,  California,  &c.,  whereas  in  1847  the  number  was  981  ; in 
1841,  1,192,  and  in  1840,  1,448.  In  1825,  when  the  trade  and  business  of  Great  Brit- 
ain suddenly  enlarged,  and  speculation  rife,  the  number  of  new  vessels  built  was  1,003, 
and  in  1826,  1,151,  being  much  larger  than  in  1852.  This  result  maybe  in  part 
attributed  to  the  greater  activity  of  the  steam  vessels. 


GALENA  AND  CHICAGO  UNION  RAILROAD. 

This  road  is  145  miles  in  length,  the  distance  between  Chicago  and  Galena.  The 
seventh  annual  report  of  the  president  and  superintendent  exhibits  its  affairs  as  in  a 
prosperous  condition.  The  earnings  of  this  road  from  all  sources  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  April  30,  1854,  were  as  follows; — 

From  passengers $339,996  I Mails $11,249 

Freight 447,667  | 

Total $799,913 


RECEIPTS  OF  FRENCH  RAILROADS, 

The  Moniteur  publishes  the  gross  receipts  of  the  French  railroads  for  the  first  six 
months  of  1854,  and  compares  them  with  those  of  the  corresponding  period  of  1853. 
There  is  an  increase  in  the  distance  open  this  year  of  about  200  miles  of  rail,  but  the 
increase  of  the  receipts  is  much  beyond  the  proportionate  yield  of  this  added  distance. 
The  aidvance  is  about  fourteen  millions.  If  calculated  by  kilometres — four-fifths  of  a 
mile — the  advance  in  yield  of  1854  over  1853  is  2,300  francs  per  kilometre,  or  twelve 
per  cent.  This  for  France,  and  under  the  circumstances,  is  a creditable  state  of 
things. 


504 


Sialisfics  of  Arjrlculiurc.^  etc. 


THE  COLLINS  MAIL  STEAMERS. 

The  everajTc  expenses  of  a voya^re  from  New  ATak  to  Liverpool  anrl  Lack  Iiave  in- 
creased §'10,084  a (rip.  1 he  increased  poy  is  J^lGiTSO;  the  increased  expenses  j)er 
voyap^e  are  §(10,084  — leaving  the  actual  increase  of  pay,  under  the  act,  only  §'‘2,705. 
The  increased  speed  on  the  Collins  line  since  July  1st,  1852,  has  averaged  two  days 
each  way  over  the  speed  made  in  1850  and  1851;  and  (his  increased  speed  has 
created  additional  expense,  together  with  the  increased  price  of  labor  and  w.agea. 
As,  for  instance,  coal  has  advanced  $3  per  ton,  making  an  increased  expenditure  of 
§55,500  j)er  round  trip  to  Liverpool  and  back— or  ^143,000  for  the  20  yearly  trips. 

3'he  increased  post.sge  for  1853  over  1852  appears  from  the  Postmaster  General’s 
Report  to  be  SI  per  cent.  In  1852,  §5339,104  ; in  1853,  S4O9,80t.  If  this  per  centage 
of  increase  be  taken  as  any  criterion,  the  per  centage  of  this  year  will  be  as  follows; 
1854,  §5050,578;  and  for  1855,  §5951,050 — a sum  greater  than  the  amount  paid  by  the 
government  for  the  service,  'I  he  increased  postage  of  the  Cunard  line  for  the  same 
time  is  29  per  cent.  In  1852  §5055,021,  and  in  1853  §5845,553.  Allowing  the  Rriti.'-h 
postage  to  increase  this  year  and  the  next  at  29  per  cent,  the  result  will  be  as  follows  : 
for  1854,  §51,090,764  ; and  for  1855,  §51,407,056. 


STATISTICS  OF  AGRICULTURE,  &c. 


THE  VALUE  OF  LASDS  LV  OHIO  I.V  1853, 

The  following  table  furnished  for  publication  in  the  Merchants'  Marjazine,  was  pre- 
pared by  Mr.  W.  D.  Morgan,  Auditor  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  It  shows  the  number  of 
acres  sold,  the  prices  at  which  they  were  sold,  the  average  price  per  acre  as  sold,  and 
the  average  price  per  acre  as  appraised,  (fee. 

SALES  OF  LAND  AS  ENTERED  ON  RECORD  IN  THE  SEVERAL  COUNTIES,  BETWEEN  THE  IST 
DAY  OF  APRIL  AND  1 ST  DAY  OF  OCTOBER,  1853. 


Amount 
for  which 


Counties. 

No.  of 
acres  sold. 

Amount 
for  which 
they  were  sold. 

same  lands 
were  appraised 
in  IS.5.3. 

Average 
per  acre  as 
sold. 

Average 
per  acre  as 
appraised. 

Adams 

3,253 

$32,048 

$30,671 

$9  85 

$9  43 

Ashland 

6,159 

145,844 

108,880 

23  68 

17  66 

Ashtabula 

132,402 

89,690 

18  11 

12  27 

Auglaize 

7,299 

55,083 

52,384 

7 55 

7 18 

Belmont 

7,572 

212,842 

161,020 

28  10 

21  26 

Brown 

1,856 

48,003 

40,208 

25  86 

21  66 

Champaign. 

5,376 

130,689 

117,482 

24  31 

21  85 

Clark 

4,057 

147,218 

107,802 

36  29 

26  57 

Clermont 

5,160 

147,399 

117,595 

28  57 

22  79 

Clinton 

2,981 

84,776 

72,347 

28  44 

24  27 

Columbiana 

7,510 

194,614 

163,537 

25  91 

21  77 

Coshocton 

2,704 

54,801 

34,908 

20  26 

13  96 

Crawford 

8,963 

150,577 

149,514 

16  79 

16  68 

Cuvahoga 

7,357 

270,199 

264,326 

36  72 

35  93 

Darke 

13,853 

102,610 

86,172 

7 41 

6 22 

Defiance 

7,884 

49,154 

41,052 

6 23 

5 20 

Delaware 

110,021 

85,684 

20  14 

15  69 

Erie 

2,238 

62,915 

60,624 

28  11 

27  09 

Fairfield 

5,634 

160,834 

165,629  ' 

28  55 

29  40 

]''ayette 

Franklin 

12,704 

261,292 

250,789 

20  57 

19  76 

181,175 

171,183 

30  67 

28  98 

li'iilliin  . ..  ...  ..  ..  

Gallia 

35,392  • 

30,181 

8 34 

^7  11 

Geauga 

6,968 

127,872 

120,179 

18  35 

17  25 

Greene 

6,194 

179,706 

177,868 

29  01 

28  72 

Guernsey 

69,574 

46,121 

14  38 

9 73 

Li#-  .tfiW  '• 


IT 


